Eukaryotes

<p>Presence of ribosomes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It facilitates the transport of proteins into the nucleus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They translate secretory and membrane proteins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They get exported to the cytoplasm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It acts as the site for protein synthesis and processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They facilitate communication between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To facilitate the assembly of proteins during translation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They modify proteins after their synthesis to alter their function. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To synthesize and process proteins and lipids. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is essential for the import of larger molecules into the nucleus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both transcription and translation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It allows lateral movement of phospholipids and proteins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They regulate the transcription of specific genes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maintains concentration gradients of ions across the cell membrane. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nucleus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Protein synthesis and lipid metabolism. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Nuclear pore complex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Endoplasmic reticulum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By synthesizing proteins from amino acids. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They possess a defined nucleus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both active transport and passive diffusion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>46 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Asexual reproduction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Four haploid daughter cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA wound around histone proteins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They originate from different parents. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Each chromosome contains many genes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Total number of chromosomes in diploid cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It helps in understanding inheritance patterns. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Repairing double-strand breaks in DNA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Chromosomes are duplicated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prometaphase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Utilizes an error-prone DNA repair process (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Separation into two individual daughter cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It determines progression towards the G0 phase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>G2 phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To donate electrons to the electron transport chain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>2.5 ATP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It catalyzes the reaction converting ADP to ATP (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is used to convert ADP to ATP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is released as heat (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Coenzyme Q (B), Cytochrome C (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oxidative phosphorylation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Water (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transfer of chemical energy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Through substrate level phosphorylation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Substrate level phosphorylation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Release of energy, ADP, and inorganic phosphate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reactions that release energy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It acts as an electron donor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Release of energy used to form ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Lactate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Citrate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>3 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inner mitochondrial membrane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Substrate-level phosphorylation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Oxidation-reduction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is reduced to NADH. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It creates a proton gradient. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To enhance the stability and export of RNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>RNA polymerase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>AUG (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To bind to promoters and initiate transcription (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Because different codons can specify the same amino acid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Splicing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To create an RNA strand from a DNA template (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By allowing different exons to be combined in various ways (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To modify the structure and function of proteins after synthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Initiation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mature mRNA transcript (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It produces a completely different protein due to shifting the reading frame (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It recognizes codons and brings the corresponding amino acids (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Silent mutation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Attachment of carbohydrate groups (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A truncated protein that is usually nonfunctional (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It unwinds the DNA double helix to expose bases for transcription. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They determine which genes are expressed in a particular cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Codons consist of three nucleotides and specify amino acids. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They involve the addition of a poly-A tail and splicing of introns. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To bring amino acids to the ribosomes for protein assembly. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It has the same sequence as the final RNA transcript except for the base uracil. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The concentration of transcription factors and mRNA levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The DNA double helix is unwound and the coding strand is exposed. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Each gamete carries only one allele from each gene pair. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It involves multiple genes affecting a single trait. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They predict the probability of offspring inheriting particular genotypes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Monogenic conditions involve traits affected by one gene, whereas polygenic conditions involve multiple genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Males are more likely to express X-linked disorders than females. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Through combinations of alleles from multiple genes that contribute to the trait. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The effects of individual genes are additive in determining the phenotype. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Their expression can be masked by other alleles leading to recessive traits. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>All offspring will show the dominant phenotype. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It means multiple genes contribute to a single phenotype. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Huntington's disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Males only have one X chromosome, making them more susceptible to X-linked diseases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Principle of Independent Assortment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cystic fibrosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Half of the offspring will exhibit the dominant phenotype. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It results in a continuous range of phenotypic variations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It requires mutant alleles from both parents to manifest. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It follows an X-linked recessive inheritance pattern. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phenylalanine is converted into toxic phenylketone due to a deficiency. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It decreases protein stability and function. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It customizes therapies based on individual genetic profiles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They alter the rate of transcription by binding to transcription factors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They alter gene expression by binding to intracellular receptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To serve as a binding site for RNA polymerase. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Enhances Na+ retention in the kidney (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They decrease transcription by binding to specific regions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sodium movement determines water movement in the kidneys. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The requirements of combinatorial regulation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Facilitated diffusion through ENaC and Na+/K+-ATPase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Glucocorticoids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It increases pressure driving the formation of tissue fluid. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They promote transcription of ENaC and Na+/K+-ATPase. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They facilitate the binding of RNA polymerase to the TATA box. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Altered gene expression over hours to days. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Regulating the rate of transcription (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>DNA Binding Domain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To initiate transcription of DNA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They can upregulate or downregulate transcription levels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They regulate gene expression and influence cellular activity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It could disrupt normal gene regulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They interact with proteins that enhance transcription (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cancers and metabolic conditions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The size of a nuclear pore in its resting state is 9 nanometers.

Nuclear localization sequences cause a change in the nuclear pore's shape, widening it.

The nucleolus is located inside the nucleus, without a membrane.

The nucleolus produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembles ribosomal subunits.

Ribosomes translate mRNA into amino acid sequences to form proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) helps select the correct amino acid for protein synthesis.

Ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesize proteins destined for secretion or the membrane.

The ER is a network of tubules and vesicles where proteins are processed and moved to the Golgi.

Phospholipids have a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails, which form a lipid bilayer.

A double layer of phospholipids that forms the foundation of cell membranes.

The model of cell membranes, describing the movement of phospholipids and proteins.

The double membrane surrounding the nucleus; it regulates what enters and exits the nucleus.

A copy of a gene's instructions; it carries the message from DNA (inside the nucleus) to the ribosomes (in the cytoplasm).

The process of copying a gene's sequence into mRNA.

The process of assembling a protein using the information in mRNA.

Proteins carry out the cell's functions; they are made from instructions from DNA.

The outer boundary of a eukaryotic cell, composed of phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol, creating a selectively permeable barrier.

The plasma membrane controls the passage of molecules, maintains internal environments, and facilitates various cellular processes.

Specialized structures within eukaryotic cells that perform specific functions.

The organelle that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA).

The jelly-like substance within a cell containing the organelles.

The ability of a membrane to allow some molecules to pass through while preventing others.

Differences in the concentration of a substance across a space. Important for cell function.

Cellular compartments enclosed by membranes.

The complete set of genetic material within an organism's cells.

Condensed structures made up of DNA and proteins that carry genetic information.

Segments of DNA that code for specific proteins or RNA molecules.

A type of cell division that produces two daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell.

A type of cell division that produces four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

An organized arrangement of chromosomes from a cell, used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

The series of events that a cell goes through from its formation to its division into two daughter cells.

The division of the cell's cytoplasm, following mitosis, resulting in two individual cells.

The stage of the cell cycle where the cell grows and replicates its genetic material, preceding mitosis.

The first stage of interphase, where the cell grows and duplicates its organelles.

The stage of interphase where DNA is replicated.

The final phase of interphase, where the cell makes proteins needed for cell division.

The first stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense and the spindle begins to form.

The stage of mitosis where the nuclear envelope breaks down and microtubules attach to kinetochores on the chromosomes.

A series of protein complexes embedded in the mitochondrial membrane, responsible for transferring electrons from donors to acceptors, generating a proton gradient that drives ATP production.

The electrochemical gradient created by the pumping of protons (H+) across the mitochondrial membrane during ETC, which stores potential energy used to drive ATP synthesis.

The process where the energy stored in the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by ATP Synthase.

An enzyme complex embedded in the mitochondrial membrane responsible for using the proton motive force to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

The energy harvested in glycolysis, the link reaction, and the Krebs cycle (in the form of electrons carried by NADH and FADH2) is used to create a proton gradient in the ETC, which drives ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.

Specialized fat cells containing 'Uncoupling Protein 1' (UCP1), which disrupts the proton gradient, preventing the efficient production of ATP and releasing heat.

A protein found in brown adipocytes that acts as a 'proton channel', allowing protons to pass through the mitochondrial membrane without generating ATP, leading to heat production

NADH delivers electrons to the ETC, contributing to the building of the proton gradient that ultimately powers ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis.

A mnemonic used to remember the difference between oxidation and reduction reactions. OIL RIG stands for Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons), Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).

Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy currency of cells.

A chemical reaction that releases energy into the surroundings, often involving the breaking of chemical bonds.

A chemical reaction that requires energy from the surroundings to proceed.

A high-energy chemical bond found in ATP, which releases energy when broken.

The breakdown of ATP using water to release energy and produce ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

A way of making ATP where a phosphate group is directly transferred from a high-energy molecule (substrate) to ADP.

The cell regenerates ATP by using energy released from exergonic reactions to add a phosphate group back to ADP.

In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to lactate. This process regenerates NAD+ for further glycolysis.

The citric acid cycle takes place within the mitochondrial matrix, a compartment inside the mitochondria.

Pyruvate is first converted to Acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle. This cycle involves a series of reactions that oxidize Acetyl-CoA, generating energy carriers and releasing CO2.

The citric acid cycle produces NADH and FADH2 by reducing NAD+ and FAD. These molecules store energy from the oxidation of Acetyl-CoA.

For each turn of the citric acid cycle, the following energy carriers are produced: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 ATP.

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane, a highly folded structure within mitochondria.

The electron transport chain consists of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2, releasing energy.

The energy used in oxidative phosphorylation comes from the electrons carried by NADH and FADH2, ultimately derived from the breakdown of food molecules.

Energy released by the electron transport chain is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The potential energy generated drives ATP synthase to create ATP.

Genes continuously expressed for essential cellular processes, like basic functions.

Genes expressed only in certain cell types, like T cell receptor gene in T lymphocytes.

RNA is less stable than DNA, making it a good target for regulating gene expression.

Proteins that bind to DNA and regulate transcription, controlling gene expression.

A DNA sequence upstream of a gene, where basal transcription factors bind to initiate transcription.

A DNA sequence that can be located far from a gene, but influences its transcription rate by binding transcription factors.

A sequence of adenine nucleotides added to the end of an RNA transcript for stability and export.

The process of producing different protein isoforms from the same RNA transcript by splicing out different combinations of exons.

Three-base sequences in mRNA that signal the end of protein synthesis. They do not code for any amino acid.

The process where a tRNA molecule with a complementary anticodon binds to a specific codon on mRNA, ensuring the correct amino acid is added to the polypeptide chain.

A mutation that inserts or deletes one or two nucleotides, causing the reading frame of the mRNA to shift. This misaligns codons, leading to incorrect amino acid sequences in the protein.

A point mutation that results in a single amino acid change in the protein. This can sometimes alter the protein's function.

A point mutation that changes a codon for an amino acid into a stop codon, prematurely terminating protein synthesis. This often results in a non-functional protein.

Changes that occur to a protein after it has been synthesized, affecting its structure, function, location, and interactions. These modifications can include glycosylation, lipidation, phosphorylation, methylation, and acetylation.

Mutations, particularly those leading to incorrect protein function, can underlie various genetic diseases.

A point mutation that changes a base in the DNA sequence but does not alter the amino acid sequence of the protein. This is because the genetic code has redundancy, allowing for multiple codons to specify the same amino acid.

An enzyme responsible for building mRNA from 5' to 3' end using a DNA template. It reads the DNA and assembles the matching RNA sequence.

The DNA strand used as a template for making the RNA transcript. The RNA sequence is complementary to the template strand.

The DNA strand that matches the mRNA sequence (with T replaced by U). It's not directly used for transcription but provides the gene's sequence.

The speed at which transcription occurs. This determines how much of a specific protein is made, influencing the cell's activity.

The control of transcription rate, deciding which genes are expressed and how much. It's like choosing which recipes to use and how many portions to make.

The process of translating genetic information into functional proteins. It includes transcription and translation, ultimately leading to a protein product.

The amount of mRNA in a cell reflects the activity of a specific gene. More mRNA means more protein will be produced from that gene.

A breeding experiment to determine the genotype of an individual with a dominant phenotype. It involves crossing the individual with a homozygous recessive individual.

The inheritance of alleles for one gene is independent of other genes, meaning that different combinations of traits are possible in offspring.

Genes located on the X chromosome are inherited differently in males and females, as males have only one X chromosome.

Multiple genes contribute to a single trait, leading to a wide range of phenotypic variation.

Inheritance of a trait determined by a single gene, resulting in distinct phenotypes.

A disease where a single copy of a mutated gene on a non-sex chromosome is sufficient to cause the disease.

A disease where two copies of a mutated gene on a non-sex chromosome are needed for the disease to manifest.

A neurodegenerative disorder caused by an autosomal dominant mutation, characterized by involuntary movements (chorea) and cognitive decline.

The process of passing genetic traits from parents to offspring.

The observable characteristics of an organism, influenced by the genotype.

Alternative forms of a gene, located at the same position on homologous chromosomes.

Having two identical alleles for a specific gene.

Having two different alleles for specific gene.

During gamete formation, each allele of a pair separates into different gametes, ensuring each offspring gets one allele from each parent.

One allele (dominant) masks the expression of another (recessive) allele for a particular trait.

A type of mutation where a three-nucleotide sequence is repeated abnormally many times in a gene. This can lead to an overproduction of a protein, often causing disease.

An autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which encodes a protein responsible for transporting chloride ions across cell membranes. This leads to thick mucus buildup in organs like the lungs and pancreas.

Organoids, small three-dimensional models of intestinal tissue, grown in a lab. They can be used to predict how a patient will respond to different drugs.

An autosomal recessive genetic disorder where the body cannot break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to a buildup of phenylketone in the blood, causing neurological damage. It's treated by a special diet.

A progressive muscle-weakening disorder caused by a mutation in the dystrophin gene, located on the X chromosome, leading to muscle degeneration. It mostly affects males.

A group of proteins that bind to a promoter region of DNA and help RNA polymerase initiate transcription.

They control the speed of transcription, turning genes up or down, or switching them on or off, in response to internal or external cues.

Lipid-based hormones that bind to intracellular receptors, triggering specific cellular responses.

They play a critical role in regulating gene expression, ensuring that the right proteins are produced at the right time and in the right amount.

They regulate a wide range of physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction.

Understanding their mechanisms can lead to developing targeted therapies for diseases related to gene expression and hormonal imbalances.

They offer insights into the molecular mechanisms of drug action, allowing us to design drugs that specifically target these processes.

Aldosterone is a hormone that acts on the kidneys to increase sodium and water retention, leading to higher blood volume and pressure.

Aldosterone influences gene expression in the kidney by activating certain genes involved in sodium and water reabsorption. It binds to specific DNA regions (response elements) to stimulate transcription of these genes.

Transcription factors are proteins that control gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences, regulating how efficiently genes are transcribed into RNA. They act like control dials that influence gene activity.

Steroid hormones, like estrogen and testosterone, are lipid-based hormones that regulate various physiological processes. They work by binding to receptors inside cells, triggering gene expression changes.

HRT uses synthetic versions of hormones, like estrogen or testosterone, to alleviate symptoms related to hormonal changes or deficiencies. It's used for post-menopausal women or those with hormone imbalances.

When multiple transcription factors work together to control a single gene's expression, creating a complex regulatory network.

A specific DNA sequence upstream of a gene where transcription factors bind to initiate transcription. It's like a starting signal for RNA polymerase.

Steroid hormones affect their target tissues by binding to specific receptors inside the cell, which then act as transcription factors, altering gene expression.

We're seeking to identify the genes specifically activated by steroid hormone receptors in a given situation.

A mineralocorticoid steroid hormone that regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure.