Ethiopian Regions History

The Southern, Western, and Eastern Ethiopian Regions

• This unit explores the history of peoples and states in these regions, with emphasis on social structures and political power sources.
• It also covers major historical developments in the Christian highland kingdom from 1559 to 1855, including consolidation attempts, religious conflicts, the Gondarine period, the Zemene Mesafint, and European exploration.

Learning Outcomes

• Describe similarities and differences in Omotic state political structures.
• Mention the state systems of the Gedeo, Sidama, and Gurage.
• Analyze factors for the political transformation from Gadaa to monarchy among the Macha Oromo.
• Show the roles of trade and Islam in the rise of states in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Locate states in southern, western, and eastern Ethiopia on a map.
• Explain how King Gelawdewos dealt with the Sultanate of Adal and Oromo expansion.
• Compare and contrast achievements and weaknesses of Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez in spreading Catholicism.
• List major functions of Gondar as a permanent capital.

Key Terms

• Tato system
• Kawo/Kati system
• Sera-Woma system
• Yajoka
• Sheikhdom
• Kawuka dynasty
• Sultan
• Jesuit
• Zemene Mesafint
• Missionary
• Monarchy
• Mootii

Omotic Peoples and States

• The Omotic peoples reside on both sides of the Omo River.
• Omotic is part of the Afro-Asiatic super language family and is spoken only in Ethiopia.
• Their economy is based on sedentary agriculture (mainly enset cultivation), pastoralism, and handicrafts.
• Significant Omotic groups include the Dorze, Wolaita, Kafa, Dizi, and others.

Omotic States Under the Tato System

• Kafa, Shekka, and Yem possessed intricate state structures.
• These kingdoms were governed by kings with the title of Tato.

Kingdom of Yem

• Existed between the Gibe and upper Omo Rivers, northeast of Kafa.
• First mentioned in King Yeshak's song (1412-30), paying tributes in horses.
• Antonio Fernandez, a Jesuit, was the first European to mention Yem in 1614.
• The Halman Gama dynasty was replaced by the Mowa dynasty in the 14th century.
• Angar Fochara was the kingdom's center.
• Yem kings had absolute power with the title of Amno
• Astessor, a council of officials were below the king in the hierarchy.
• Provinces and sub-provinces were led by Erasho and Gagna officials, respectively.
• The economy relied on agriculture with Enset as the staple food.

Kingdom of Kafa

• Located south of the Gojeb River, with prominence in the 14th century.
• The Kafecho people claim descent from the Minjo royal clan, ruling since about 1390.
• The crown was hereditary within the Minjo clan.
• The king divided the kingdom into provinces ruled by governors.
• The central government, led by the Tato, was assisted by the Mikkerecho (Council of Seven).
• Bonga was the capital.
• Natural defenses included the Gojeb River and watchtowers.
• 'Hiriyoo', or defense ditch, was a notable defense trench, with warriors forming the army's core.
• The King owned forests and land.
• The economy was based on agriculture supplemented by trade.
• Taxes were paid in cattle and musk, collected by Tate Kisho.
• Major trade items included ivory, cattle, slaves, musk, and later coffee.
• Kafa resisted Oromo expansion in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• In the 19th century, powerful kings expanded territories.
• Tato Gaki Sharecho, the last king, was captured in 1897 and exiled after a war with Menilek II.
• The kingdom was incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire in 1897.

Kingdom of Shekka

• Located west of Kafa and east of the Baro River.
• Ruled by the Batto dynasty until the late 16th century, then the Bushasho dynasty.
• Kings used the title of Tato.
• The territory was divided into six provinces, with governors as councilors.
• Christianity was introduced in the late 16th century by King Sertse Dingil (1563-97).
• Frequent wars with the expanding Macha Oromo occurred until the late 19th century.
• Close relationships with Ennarya, Kafa, and Anfillo existed, Gecha in Anderacha was the capital for most of its history.

Omotic States Under the Kawo/Kati System

• This section discusses kingdoms utilizing the Kawo/Kati system.

Kingdom of Wolaita

• It was located south of the Sultanate of Hadya.
• Had connections with the medieval kingdom of Damot.
• Ruled by the Wolaita Malla dynasty beginning in the early 14th century.
• Motalami, formerly king of Damot, founded the dynasty.
• During Amde Tsiyon's reign (1314-44), Wolaita became a tributary of the Christian kingdom.
• The Tigre dynasty replaced the Wolaita Malla dynasty in the 15th century.
• Dry stone defensive walls known as Ijajo Kalla existed along the borderlines.
• Imam Ahmad's forces and Oromo expansion were successfully resisted.
• Kings used the title of Kawo, holding absolute power.
• A warrior class called ‘Goqa” existed.
• Agriculture was the basis of the economy for Walaita.
• All land belonged to the Kawo (king).
• Trade and handicrafts were auxiliary economic activities.
• In the early 19th century, the kingdom's center moved to Damota hill.
• Kawo Gobe (1848-88) strengthened the kingdom.
• Kawo Tona Gaga (1888-1894) was the last king before incorporation into the Ethiopian Empire in 1894.

Kingdom of Dawuro

• Dawuro people existed along the Omo river basin since early times.
• Bordered by the Gojeb and Omo rivers to the north, east, and south, and the Kafa highlands to the west.
• Origins are traced to the medieval Sultanate of Dawaro.
• The Kawuka dynasty created a large state by uniting petty chieftains by 1700.
• Famous Dawuro Kati (kings) included Kati Irashu and Kati Halala, who incorporated Konta.
• Defensive walls, called Kati Halala Kalla, were erected since the 16th century.

Kingdoms of Gamo and Gofa

• Kingdom of Gamo:
  • The Gamo people inhabited the area between Lake Chamo and Abaya.
  • Gamo means "lion".
  • Enset was the staple food in the highlands, and crops such as barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage were produced.
  • Maize and sweet potatoes were cultivated in the lowlands.
  • Settlements were organized into independent units called Darie, ruled by a Kawo.
  • Darie had an assembly for communal issues.
• Kingdom of Gofa:
  • Inhabited the region bordered by the Omo River to the west and the kingdoms of Dawuro and Gamo to the east.
  • Agriculture (animal rearing and crop cultivation) was the base of the economy.
  • Iron bars served as the local currency.
  • Gofa was an independent kingdom with sacred kings in Lote.
  • A dual structure was in place consisting of a “landed chief” and a “rain king”
  • The Kawo or Kati had advisors.
  • The Gofa had a customary legal system known as Woga.
  • The kingdom expanded southwards from Wurki in the mid-17th century.
  • Kawo Kamma, the last king, died fighting against the imperial army of Ethiopia in 1891.
• Other Omotic groups such as the Zayse, Basketo, Oyda, and others had similar socio-economic and political structures using Kati or Kawo system of governance.

Cushitic States and Peoples Under the Sera-Woma System

• Sidama, Hadya, Kambata, Tambaro, Halaba, and Qabena are Eastern highland Cushitic language speakers.
• They mainly cultivate enset and coffee.
• They have their own history, culture, traditional institutions, and way of life.
• Indigenous governance and dispute resolution institutions are known as the Sera-Woma system.
• Sera and Woma institutions resolved conflicts at the village level.

Sidama

• Woma was the cultural and ritual village leadership, chosen for their peacemaking abilities.
• Sera is the customary law of the Woma.
• The Sidama are divided into generation-sets called Luwa, rotating every 8 years, similar to the Oromo Gadaa.
• The Luwa institution has five rotating grades: Wawassa, Darara, Mogissa, Hirbora, and Fullassa.
• Luwa officials, such as Gadanna (leader) and Jalawa (assistant), served for eight years.
• Societal recognition was important for being elected as a Chimesa, a leader with authority.
• The Luwa institution previously recruited and trained Sidama for defense and nominated candidates for Gadanna and Jalawa elections.
• Women were not allowed to become respected elders with authority.

Kambata

• The indigenous governing institution is called Sera.
• Regulates relations between individuals, clans, and territorial units.
• Higher-level administrative and judiciary duties were carried out by the Hambarcho, a council of seven members.

Gedeo People

• They have lived east of Lake Abaya since ancient times and are related to the Guji Oromo.
• They practiced enset agriculture.
• The Gedeo had an administrative system known as ballee (council of elders) that worked with age classes.
• The ballee had seven grades with a 70-year cycle, providing secular and ritual leadership.

Konso People

• The Konso are Cushitic language speakers.
• Agriculture was their major economic activity.
• They had soil conservation techniques (terraces), wooden carvings, and stone enclosures.
• Until the late 19th century, each village was ruled by a council of elders called Hayyota, selected by male members of the village.
• The Konso had a village based socio-political organization and generation set known as Tsella.
• The cycle of years of the generation set varied from one village to another.

Gurage Chiefdoms

• The Gurage are ancient peoples of southern Ethiopia, composed of various clan groups.
• Enset is their staple food.
• They had an indigenous system of governance developed over centuries.
• Each lineage group was governed by customary methods.
• Yajoka Qicha and Gordanna Sera were essential political and judicial institutions.
• Yajoka and Gordanna assemblies combined legislative and judiciary functions and also served as supreme courts.

Silt'e

• The Silt’e are early inhabitants of Southern Ethiopia and speak a South-Ethio Semitic language.
• They have a customary legal system known as Ye Silt`e Sera or Malga Sera.

Western States

• This section introduces the Western States of Ethiopia

Gibe and Leqa Oromo States

• The Macha Oromo occupied the Gibe valley and Wallaga regions in the late 16th and 17th centuries.
• Earlier states like Bizamo and Ennarya disappeared.
• By 1800, the Oromo transformed from the Gadaa system to a monarchy.
• Factors for this transformation were the revival of long-distance trade, the spread of Islam, and the rise of powerful Abbaa Duulaa (war leaders).
• Five Oromo monarchical states (Limmu-Enarya, Jimma-kakka, Gera, Gomma, and Gumma) emerged around the Gibe River.
• The Gibe states were located along trade routes.
• Major trade items included ivory, musk, spices, slaves, gold, and coffee.
• The earliest of the Gibe states was Limu-Ennarya, built around 1800 on the medieval kingdom of Ennarya.
• Gumma was the second state formed in the Gibe region around 1810.
• Jimma-Kakka was established about 1830 by the warrior Sanna.
• Gera was founded by Tullu Gunji around the middle of the 1830s.
• In Wallaga, the Leeqaa group of the Macha Oromo formed polities in the mid-19th century.
• The Leeqaa Naqamtee and Leeqaa Qellam formed their own polities.

Sheikhdoms and Peoples of Benishangul-Gumuz Region

• The Benishangul (Berta) and Gumuz people are indigenous to this region.
• During the 19th century, the Benishangul established three Muslim Sheikhdoms: Assossa, Benishangul, and Khomosha
• Islam and trans-border trade contributed to the Sheikhdoms rise.
• Gold and resources attracted Egyptian invasions.
• Gubba emerged as another Sheikhdom in the Gumuz inhabited land of Metekkel in the 19th century.

Local Chiefs of Gambella Peoples

• Before the mid-19th century, Gambella was home to five ethnic groups: Nuer, Anywaa, Majang, Opuo, and Komo.
• They speak languages from the eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo Saharan Super language family.
• Since the 17th century, there has been constant movement of people to the region.
• The Anywaa, Opuo, and Komo are settled agriculturalists.
• The Nuer practiced pastoralism.
• The Majang combined shifting cultivation with hunting and gathering.
• The Anywaa had an indigenous administrative system with a Kwaari (village headman) and a Nyiye (noble).
• The Nuer political system lacked formal authorities. They were led by spiritual leaders and ritual experts.

Eastern States

• This section discusses the Eastern States of Ethiopia

Harar

• Harar was the center of the Walasma Sultans of Adal.
• Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir built the Jugol wall in 1552-53.
• The Sultans of Adal shifted the political center from Harar to Aussa in 1577.
• Emir Ali Dawud, in 1647-1662, declared the independence of the Emirate.
• Harar became a significant trade center, minting its own coins.
• Economic interaction occurred among the Harari, Oromo, Somali, and Afar peoples.
• Harar was an essential center of Islamic learning and culture.

Afar: Aussa, Bidu, Gobaad, Tajura and Rahayito

• The Afars are Cushitic language speaking people who were basically pastoralists.
• Trade in the Afar Depression was carried out mainly by women.
• During the medieval period the Afar were under the influence of the Sultanate of Ifat.
• After the Walasma Sultans of Adal moved to Aussa in 1577, four Afar Sultanates emerged: Tajura, Rahayito, Aussa and Goba’ad.
• The Imamate of Aussa was the leading state.
• The Afar had an indigenous court system known as Makabonto (council of judge).

Somali People

• This group mainly inhabits the Ogaden region of Ethiopia.
• Their language belongs to the Eastern Lowland Cushitic family.
• Most were pastoralists, while others were settled agriculturalists and traders.
• The Ogaden was historically inhabited by the Harla people.
• The region fell under Ifat and Adal سلطنة influence between the 14th and 16th centuries.
• By the 16th century, all Somali had adopted Islam.
• There are a number of Somali sub-groups in the Regional State.
• The Somali had a council of elders known as Shir, which had power to decide criminal and civil cases.

Instability versus Consolidation in the Christian Highland Kingdom, 1559-1855

• The Christian highland kingdom struggled to recover after Imam Ahmed.
• The Gondarine period (1636-1769) saw a cultural revival but was followed by the Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855).

Attempts at Consolidation and New Political Geography

• The political center shifted from Shewa to near Lake Tana under King Minas (1559-63).
• The period was marked by instability due to Oromo expansion, Ottoman Turk occupation, and rivalry among warlords.
• Provinces under the kingdom's control included Dembiya, Gojjam, Begemdir, Lasta, Simen, and Tigray.
• Urban centers flourished
• King Sertse Dingil had his capital in Emfraz
• King Susenyos shifted his capital first to Gorgora and then Denqez west of Lake Tana, also made Yibaba in Gojjam his secondary seat of power.
• The rise of Gondar as a permanent capital started development around 1636.

Imposition of Catholicism

• After Adal's decline in 1543, Portugal and the Pope wanted to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism.
• Jesuit missionaries aimed to convert the people to Catholicism.
• King Gelawdewos objected and defended Orthodox practices.
• Bishop Andre de Oviedo failed to convert Gelawdewos.
• Bishop Pedro Pa`ez persuaded Ze Dingil with possible Portuguese assistance.
• Ze Dingil faced opposition and was killed in 1604.
• Paez continued with Yaekob.
• Susinyos (1607-32) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and made it the state religion.
• Alfonso Mendez arrived in 1625.
• Peasant rebellions broke out.
• In 1632, Susinyos abdicated and restored the Orthodox Church.
• Fasiledes expelled the Jesuits and introduced a closed-door policy.

Gondarine Period (1636-1769)

• Gondar was established as the permanent capital around 1636.
• Castles, palaces, and churches were built.
• The architectural style had Aksumite and Zagwe elements.
• Churches became centers of education and art.
• Gondar was a political, intellectual, religious, and economic hub.
• Gondar emerged as the center of an active trade.
• The trade was mainly dominated by Muslims, who also took part in weaving.
• By the late 18th century, Gondar had about 70,000 inhabitants.
• Glory did not last as there was loss of control over central and outlying territories.
• The first three kings were Fasiledes , Yohannis I and Iyasu I.
• The civil code, the Fitha Negest, was revised and the reforms promoted the development of trade during the reign of Iyasu I.
• Murder and assassination of the kings became common in the period of political disorder.
• The reign of Bekaffa was relatively more peaceful.
• Bekaffa was succeeded by his young son, Iyasu II also known as “Iyasu the little.
• Iyasu II was succeeded by his son, Iyo`as.
• growing influence of the Oromo further aggravated the opposition of the alienated Amhara ruling elites.
• Ras Michael got Iyo`as murdered in 1769 and put on the throne a seventy-year-old man, Yohannis II which marked the beginning of the Zemene Mesafint (the Era of the Warlords).

Zemene Mesafint (The Era of the Warlords, 1769-1855)

• The Zemene Mesafint was a period of weakened central authority and regional warlords.
• There was intense power struggle among regional groups and no law and order.
• The erosion of the monarchy's power led to this era, after the Imam Ahmad wars.
• The establishment of Gondar contributed to the erosion of monarchal power.
• Kings lost power and became puppets.
• Regional governors held actual power, maintaining their own armies.
• Rasbitwededs appointed and dismissed the kings and the struggle was conducted was at various levels turning the country into a center of civil war.
• The Yejju Oromo established the Yejju or Werre Sheh dynasty.
• The major regional divisions were Tigray, Simien, Dembiya, Begemdir, Lasta, Amhara, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.
• Foreign relations were conducted independently by powerful regions.
• Muhammad Ali, who extended Egypt`s rule over the Sudan in 1821 threatened from the western frontiers.
• The peasantry was forced to fight endless wars.
• The Zemene Mesafint came to an end in 1855 under Emperor Tewodros II (Kasa Hailu).
• Tewodros removed the powerful regional lords defeating Dejjazmach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam and Ras Ali II and Dejjazmech Wube of Tigray and Semien.

Shewa Kingdom

• The Shewan dynasty was founded by Negasi Kirstos who claimed descent from King Libne Dingil.
• Its political center was first at Ayne in Menze.
• Abiye expanded the kingdom to Har Amba.
• Meridazmach Amhayesus seized Ankober as his political center.