Ethics in Communication

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Ethics in Communication

• Truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason are critical for communication integrity.
• Freedom of expression, diverse perspectives, and tolerance are important for informed decision-making.
• Understanding and respecting communicators is encouraged before evaluating their messages.
• Access to communication resources allows fulfillment of potential and contribution to society.
• Promoting respectful communication climates is necessary that recognize individual needs.
• Degrading communication through distortion, intolerance, intimidation, etc., is condemned.
• Personal convictions should be expressed courageously in the pursuit of fairness.
• Sharing information, opinions, and feelings during important decisions is advocated when balancing privacy.
• Unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and the well-being of individuals and society.
• Individuals should accept responsibility for the consequences of their communication.

Hofstede’s Six Cultural Dimensions

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Individualistic cultures value self-reliance, self-expression, and freedom, with individuals looking after themselves and their families.
• Collectivist cultures prioritize in-groups, loyalty, community, and collaboration.

Power Distance

• Power distance reflects the willingness to accept inequality.
• High power distance cultures accept inequality, while low power distance cultures encourage equality.

Motivation Towards Achievement and Success (MAS)

• This dimension reflects how cultures value achievement and success.
• High MAS cultures value competitiveness, ambition, and power ("live to work").
• Low MAS cultures value relationships, quality of life, and concern for marginalized groups.

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

• Uncertainty avoidance reflects a society's tolerance for ambiguity and unpredictability.
• High UA cultures prefer rules and avoid change.
• Low UA cultures are adaptable, open to change, and willing to take risks.

Long Term Orientation (LTO)

• Long-term orientation focuses on future goals and perseverance through investing in education and planning.
• High LTO cultures value perseverance and long-term planning.
• Low LTO cultures aim for immediate results and short-term achievements.

Indulgence (IND)

• Indulgence reflects how people value freedom and desires versus strict rules.
• High IND cultures value the satisfaction of human needs and wants.
• Low IND cultures are less materialistic and adhere to stricter social norms, with greater control over desires.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s Seven Dimensions of Culture

Human Relationships

• Universalism prioritizes rules, while particularism values relationships over rules.
• Individualism emphasizes individual decisions, while communitarianism prioritizes the community.
• Specific cultures have low involvement (low context), while diffuse cultures have high involvement (high context).
• Neutral cultures reserve emotions, while affective cultures express emotions.
• Achievement cultures derive status from accomplishments, while ascription cultures base status on birth or wealth.

Time

• Some cultures focus on past, present, and future experiences day by day.
• Some cultures focus on short-term and long-term horizons.
• Sequential cultures view time as a linear series, focusing on one thing at a time.
• Synchronic cultures view past, present, and future as interrelated, multitasking.

Environment

• Internal cultures seek to control nature, believing people can dominate it with effort.
• External cultures believe in harmony with nature, accepting that people cannot shape their own destiny.

Culture

• Culture has been compared to an onion

Communication Models Review

Types of Communication Models

• Linear (Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon-Weaver, Berlo's SMCR)
• Transactional (Berlund's, Dance Helical, Becker's Mosaic)
• Interactional (Schramm's)

Aristotle’s Model of Communication

• Ethos refers to credibility/authority.
• Pathos involves appealing to emotions.
• Logos pertains to logic/reason.

Shannon-Weaver’s Model

• This is a telephone model of communication that introduced the concept of noise.

Berlo’s Model

• The model influences the communication process between two people.

Schramm’s Model - Interactional

• It highlights the back-and-forth nature of communication.
• It introduces the concept of 'field of experience' including beliefs, culture, values, experiences.

White’s Stages of Oral Communication

• Communication is circular rather than linear.
• It uses non-verbal communication.

Noise

• Noise refers to interference with effective transmission and reception of messages.
• Physical noise refers to music and loud talking.
• Physiological noise refers to sickness and exhaustion.
• Psychological noise refers to mental distractions and anxiety.
• Semantic noise refers to distracting words and incorrect grammar.

Semiotics

• Syntactic refers to the formal properties of signs and symbols.
• Pragmatic concerns relations between signs/expressions and their users.
• Semantic studies relationships between signs/symbols and what they represent.

Transmission Model of Communication

• Communication functions as a dynamic process
• It is a linear process of sending and receiving messages through a channel.
• It was developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

Transactional Model of Communication

• It is a dynamic framework.
• It involves the exchange of messages and shared meaning creation.
• It was developed by Dean Barnlund.

Intercultural Communication

Culture

• Culture is a system of shared values, beliefs, and norms.
• Values are accepted standards of right and wrong.
• Ideal values are professed, while real values guide behavior.

Types of Communication

• Intercultural communication occurs between people with different cultures and communication styles.
• Culture shock is psychological discomfort when engaging with new cultures.
• Dominant culture is the system of norms held by the majority group.
• Co-culture is a group with common values smaller than the dominant culture.
• Code-switching is altering linguistic and non-verbal patterns.
• Cultural identity is based on association with dominant and co-cultures.
• Ethnicity is classification based on shared characteristics like nationality.
• Native language is the language learned from birth.
• Sex consists of biological traits; gender consists of learned communication roles.
• Religion refers to belief systems with rituals.
• Socioeconomic status refers to a person's position based on income.
• Low-context cultures use direct, specific verbal messages.
• High-context cultures rely on misunderstood context.
• Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is superior.

Observations

• Nonparticipant observation involves passively watching interactions.
• Participant observation involves living and working within a different culture.

Qualities

• Altruism refers to unselfish concern for others.
• Egocentricity refers to selfish interest in one's own needs.
• Intercultural empathy involves placing oneself in another's cultural world.
• Flexibility involves adjusting communication to fit in with others.

Metaphors

• The melting pot represents homogenization into a common culture.
• The tributaries represent cultures maintaining unique identities while converging.
• The tapestry represents diverse strands of threads, with each thread akin to a person.
• The garden salad represents distinct ingredients tossed together within a national culture.

Culture Shock

• It consists of confusion with anxiety.

Stages of Culture Shock

• Honeymoon: Overwhelmingly positive with infatuation with cultural differences.
• Frustration: Feeling tired because can't understand the verbal and non-verbal communication.
• Adjustment: Frustrations decrease with familiarity.
• Acceptance: Understanding a new culture better and feeling more comfortable, starting the adaptation process.

Adaptation

• Acculturation adjusts immigrants' ways of life to the host culture.
• Assimilation absorbs different cultures into the mainstream culture and are acculturated.
• Integration allows cultural exchange without sacrificing original characteristics.
• Separation rejects the dominant culture to preserve the culture of origin.
• Marginalization renders immigrants powerless.

Ethical Dilemmas

• An issue is whether to change behaviors to fit the host culture's beliefs.

Components of Intercultural Communication (ICC) Competence

• Competent communication is effective in fulfilling objectives.
• Intercultural competence depends on specific contexts.

Qualities for Competence

• Knowledge refers to the needed cognitive information about people, context, and norms.
• Motivations include the emotional associations people have when communicating interculturally.
• Feelings refer to the emotional state when communicating with a different culture.
• Intentions guide choices in intercultural communication.
• Actions refer to behaviors that are appropriate and effective.
• Respect is shown through verbal and nonverbal symbols.

Dimensions for Basic Intercultural Competence

• Orientation to knowledge is the terms people use to explain themselves and the world.
• Empathy is the capacity to behave as though you understand the world as others do.
• Interaction management is the skill in regulating conversations.
• Task role behavior are the behaviors that involves idea initiations.
• Relational role behavior are the behaviors associated with interpersonal harmony.
• Tolerance for ambiguity is the ability to react to new situations with little discomfort.
• Display of respect is the ability to show positive regard for another person.
• Interaction posture is the ability to respond to others descriptively.

General Competence

• ICC Competence promotes ability to communicate effectively in various cultural contexts.
• Motivation drives intercultural relationships, being intrinsic or extrinsic

Motivation Types

• Intrinsic is voluntary, rewarding and lifelong learning.
• Extrinsic stems from outside reward like money.

Cultivating ICC Competence

• Experiential learning and reflective practices.
• Fostering attitudes, discovering knowledge and developing skills.
• Developing a sense of wonder and high tolerance for uncertainty.
• Learning styles consist of gathering info, constructing meaning, organizing knowledge.
• Empathy, cultural information accumulation, listening, conflict resolution, anxiety management.

Intercultural Sensitivity (ICS)

• Kinesics refers to the use of gestures
• Oculesics refers to the use of gaze
• Haptics refers to the use of touch
• Proxemics refers to the use of space
• Chronemics refers to the use of time

Culturally Sensitive and Bias-Free Language (ISMS)

• Sexism is discrimination based on sex/gender.
• Ableism is discrimination based on disability.
• Linguicism is discrimination based on language.
• Native speakerism is pervasive ideology.
• Racism/Ethnocentrism is discrimination based on race/culture.
• Lookism is discrimination based on appearance.
• Ageism is discrimination based on age.
• Classism is discrimination based on social class.

High-Context Cultures

• Communication relies on implicit cues and background information.
• Relationships build slowly and depend on trust.
• Productivity depends on relationships and group processes.
• Identity is rooted in groups.
• Social structure and authority are centralized.
• Nonverbal elements are significant.
• Verbal messages are indirect.
• Disagreement is personalized.
• Space is communal, and people stand close.
• Time is not easily scheduled.
• Multiple sources of information are used.
• Thinking proceeds from general to specific.
• Learning occurs by observing and practicing.
• Groups are preferred, and accuracy is valued.

Low-Context Cultures

• Communication relies on explicit messages.
• Relationships begin and end quickly.
• Productivity depends on procedures and goals.
• Identity is rooted in individuals and accomplishments.
• Social structure is decentralized.
• Nonverbal elements are not significant.
• Verbal messages are explicit.
• Disagreement is depersonalized.
• Space is compartmentalized, and privacy is important.
• Events are scheduled and have particular times.
• One source of information is used.
• Thinking proceeds from specific to general.
• Learning occurs by following directions.
• Individual orientation is preferred, and speed is valued.

World Englishes

Language

• Language is a system of symbols.
• Consists of rules, sound system, and vocabulary.

Dialect

• Variety of a language.
• Signals where ppl are from.
• Is distinguished by linguistic structures.

Mother Tongue

• Language from birth.

Lingua Franca

• Language used by ppl with different native languages.

Language Contact

• Speakers of different languages interact and influence each other.

Language Shifts

• Community stops using a language in favor of another.