Ethical Decision Making in Nonprofits
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Questions and Answers

What is a misconception regarding the ethical behavior of employees in nonprofit organizations?

  • Nonprofit organizations cannot have internal conflicts. (correct)
  • Employees in nonprofits may sometimes engage in unethical behavior.
  • All nonprofit organizations maintain high ethical standards. (correct)
  • Nonprofit organizations are immune to ethical violations. (correct)

Which factor does NOT influence perception in decision making?

  • Organizational culture
  • Individual differences
  • Emotional state
  • Standard operating procedures (correct)

How does bounded rationality affect decision making?

  • It restricts the decision-making process to manageable sets of information. (correct)
  • It encourages limitless options in decision making.
  • It eliminates emotional influences from decisions.
  • It leads to choosing the perfect option in decision making.

Which ethical decision criteria contrast with others in ethical decision making?

<p>Compassionate decision making (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the embezzlement scandal at the Healing Arts Initiative?

<p>Members of the board faced legal actions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect distinguishes intuition from rational decision making?

<p>Intuition often involves emotional and subconscious processes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of attribution theory?

<p>It assesses the motives behind behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a stage in the three-stage model of creativity?

<p>Evaluation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of its income does the Wounded Warrior Project spend on programs and services?

<p>60% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been a significant concern regarding the financial practices of the Wounded Warrior Project?

<p>Overspending on executive compensation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did former supervisor William Chick claim about the organization?

<p>It increasingly focused on raising money over helping veterans. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What movement emphasizes accountability and transparency in nonprofit organizations?

<p>Effective altruism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary factor that influences individual perception in organizations?

<p>Personal characteristics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did some supervisors perceive employees who started work earlier in the day?

<p>As more conscientious (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact can isolated nonprofit scandals have on donor perceptions?

<p>Cause generalized distrust in all nonprofits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, why is perception essential in Organizational Behavior (OB)?

<p>It influences decision-making and behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'meta-charities' refer to?

<p>Organizations that provide performance ratings of nonprofits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible misconception about employees in ethical dilemmas within nonprofits?

<p>All nonprofit employees are ethical. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consequence did the negative publicity have on donor behavior towards the Wounded Warrior Project?

<p>Withdrawal of donations from certain individuals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can sometimes counteract biased perceptions in the workplace?

<p>Objective evaluations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue arises when focusing only on isolated nonprofit scandals?

<p>Forming a negative stereotype of all nonprofits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily influences the attribution of an individual's task performance according to the consistency of behavior?

<p>Internal factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental attribution error?

<p>Underestimating external influences (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do individuals often perceive their successes and failures in a workplace setting?

<p>Attribute successes to internal factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cultural perspective tends to attribute blame to individuals more than to the group?

<p>Individualistic cultures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What approach can help change the perception of daily lateness as an ethical decision?

<p>Analyze motives for morning decisions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do self-serving biases reflect in terms of personal perception of success and failure?

<p>The attribution of blame to others (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do cultural differences influence the attribution of blame for failures according to the content?

<p>Individualistic cultures focus on personal responsibility (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a common misconception regarding punctuality in the workplace?

<p>Punctuality affects perceptions of professionalism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What tends to happen to our perception when we face ambiguous feedback?

<p>Individuals accept positive feedback but reject negative feedback (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In attribution theory, what is the significance of the three cues: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency?

<p>They help in assessing blame for actions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between a manager's cultural background and their attribution of blame for a team's performance?

<p>Cultural background influences blame attribution differently (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Katelyn's consistent task performance lead others to likely attribute to her work?

<p>Internal responsibility (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary problem with selective perception?

<p>It allows for inaccurate conclusions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the halo effect influence individual judgments?

<p>By forming a positive impression based on a single characteristic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How quickly do people form impressions of others during an interview?

<p>Within a tenth of a second (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do early impressions in an interview have on hiring decisions?

<p>They carry more weight than later information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of the contrast effect in evaluations?

<p>It distorts perceptions based on recent interactions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stereotyping can lead to which of the following outcomes?

<p>Unfair evaluations based on group perceptions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the self-fulfilling prophecy?

<p>A misjudgment that impacts future behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is often a consequence of subjective evaluations in performance appraisals?

<p>They can lead to biased outcomes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of ethical decision-making, what can enhance moral choices?

<p>Considering potential outcomes for others involved. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a horns effect?

<p>Making derogatory assumptions based on a single negative trait. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do positive stereotypes play according to the research mentioned?

<p>They can create pressure to perform at a specific level (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to white men who are activated with the stereotype that they are better at math?

<p>They tend to leave math and science majors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might selective perception lead to unwarranted conclusions?

<p>It narrows focus to emotionally significant stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do stereotypes play in decision-making?

<p>They simplify complex judgments and can lead to inaccuracies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of performance appraisal is mentioned as being objective?

<p>Sales-dollar generation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT typically contribute to selective perception?

<p>Comprehensive observation of all stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can excessive reliance on stereotypes lead to?

<p>Reinforcement of group-based differences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a faulty perception influencing behavior?

<p>Self-fulfilling prophecy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a risk of relying on stereotypes in evaluations?

<p>Reinforcement of existing biases and prejudices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is crucial for effective organizational decision-making?

<p>Understanding the perception process (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the halo and horns effects is accurate?

<p>They can disrupt objective evaluation processes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can managers mitigate the impacts of the halo and horns effects?

<p>By gathering comprehensive evaluations from multiple sources. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can performance expectations affect employees?

<p>They motivate employees to exceed minimal performance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'contrast effect' imply in organizational behavior?

<p>Perceptions influenced by comparisons with others. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a significant drawback of using positive stereotypes?

<p>They can lead to feelings of depersonalization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can cognitive complexity affect moral choices?

<p>By promoting deeper analysis of implications. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to collect input from multiple evaluators during hiring?

<p>It helps paint a more reliable picture of a candidate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT related to perception errors in performance evaluations?

<p>Result-oriented metrics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one factor that influences how we perceive a target?

<p>The background context of the target (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following exemplifies internal attribution?

<p>An employee is late because they overslept after partying (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does distinctiveness factor influence attribution?

<p>It assesses whether a behavior is common across different situations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect of prejudice in the workplace?

<p>Unfair judgment of individuals with criminal records (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the best explanation for why context matters in perception?

<p>The same individual can be perceived differently based on situational factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with attribution theory?

<p>Attribution depends on understanding distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can help reduce inaccuracies in perception?

<p>Awareness and objective measures of bias (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does consensus refer to in attribution theory?

<p>The frequency with which others behave similarly in the same situation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When do we consider a behavior to have high distinctiveness?

<p>When it appears unusual for that individual in most contexts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way can differences in characteristics influence perception?

<p>They can lead to harmful stereotypes or positive recognition based on uniqueness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What example demonstrates a positive perception impacted by unexpected differences?

<p>A formally dressed professor at a casual class (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does attribution theory explain about our perceptions of others' behaviors?

<p>Our judgments depend on multiple situational and personal factors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can perceptions of criminal records affect workplace dynamics?

<p>They lead to prejudgment and can impact hiring decisions negatively (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is crucial for enhancing creativity in diverse teams according to studies?

<p>Effective leadership that encourages perspective taking (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of creativity, what role does management's attitude towards new ideas play?

<p>It can create biases against creative ideas due to uncertainty. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best characterizes creative outcomes in an organizational context?

<p>Creative outcomes must be both novel and useful. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can newcomers contribute to team creativity based on the findings presented?

<p>They often produce creative ideas that challenge existing norms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant finding regarding team diversity and creativity?

<p>Diversity can hinder creativity without effective leadership. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might enhance the implementation of creative ideas according to relevant research?

<p>Strong networking ability and individual motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which element can diminish collective creativity in a team environment?

<p>Punitive and unsupportive leadership behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do biases affect the perception of new ideas in organizations?

<p>They contribute to a collective rejection of uncertainty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an effective strategy for improving creative output in teams?

<p>Fostering an environment that supports sharing of diverse knowledge (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is essential for a team to benefit from diversity in terms of creativity?

<p>Team members should openly share diverse experiences and ideas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What trait is correlated with greater creativity according to research?

<p>Openness to experience (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does intrinsic motivation relate to creativity?

<p>It correlates moderately with creative outcomes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which personality trait is commonly associated with creative individuals?

<p>Proactivity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does high core self-evaluations predict about an individual’s creativity?

<p>Better ability to maintain creativity in negative situations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor may weaken creativity in the workplace?

<p>Creating a competitive climate where achievement is valued at any cost. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does expertise influence creativity?

<p>It serves as the single most important predictor of creative potential. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What psychological factor is positively associated with creativity?

<p>Self-efficacy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which environmental condition is essential for fostering creativity?

<p>Motivation to be creative (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of larger social networks on creativity?

<p>They allow greater exposure to diverse ideas. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about the 'mad genius' theory?

<p>It suggests that mental illness can contribute to creativity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do managers play in fostering creativity?

<p>They can link teams to additional information and resources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the cultural dimension of individuality influence creativity?

<p>Countries high in individuality are correlated with higher creativity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of a lack of motivation in a creative environment?

<p>Reduced likelihood of demonstrating creative behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following traits is not typically associated with creative individuals?

<p>Lack of perseverance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically influences individual decision making in organizations?

<p>Personal perceptions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a problem in decision making?

<p>It involves a discrepancy between current and desired states (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might people not follow the rational decision-making model?

<p>They lack sufficient information-processing capacity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'satisficing' mean in the context of bounded rationality?

<p>Seeking solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the rational decision-making model, what is assumed about the available information?

<p>It is entirely available and complete (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do decision-makers typically ignore when they perceive a problem?

<p>Alternative courses of action (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do perceptions affect the decision to say no?

<p>People feel guilty and obligated after saying no (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does bounded rationality simplify decision making?

<p>By constructing simplified models of problems (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common decision-making error people may commit?

<p>Failing to identify all relevant data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect is not a feature of the rational decision-making model?

<p>Overlooking all constraints (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group is likely to have different perceptions of a problem?

<p>Managers from different divisions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What often influences the outcomes of decisions made within organizations?

<p>The decision maker's perceptions and evaluations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a perception error in decisions?

<p>Overestimating the relevance of one piece of information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can decision-making processes be improved within organizations?

<p>By acknowledging decision-making errors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural background influence decision making?

<p>It affects the speed and method of decision-making processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of how organizational constraints can limit decision makers?

<p>Rules and policies dictate how decisions are made. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the influence of performance evaluation systems on managers' decisions?

<p>They can lead managers to hide negative information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do cultural differences in time orientation indicate?

<p>Decision-making speed varies significantly between cultures. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an anchor have on salary negotiations?

<p>It influences the range of offers considered. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does utilitarianism function as an ethical decision criterion?

<p>It emphasizes achieving the best outcomes for the majority. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is confirmation bias?

<p>The selective gathering of information that supports prior decisions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is typical of decision-making in Japan?

<p>Group-oriented consensus forming before reaching decisions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do people typically overstate the risk of flying?

<p>Air accidents receive more media coverage. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant constraint faced by managers regarding time when making decisions?

<p>Decisions often come with explicit deadlines. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers escalation of commitment in decision-making?

<p>A feeling of responsibility for the outcome of a decision. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor most heavily influences a manager’s decision to pursue riskier choices?

<p>The organization's reward systems that favor risk aversion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can historical precedents in decision making lead to?

<p>Constrained choices based on previous decisions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does risk aversion affect decision-making?

<p>People prefer guaranteed outcomes over risky prospects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a hallmark of availability bias?

<p>Recent or vivid information is given more weight. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which culture is more likely to value acceptance of situations rather than problem-solving?

<p>Thailand (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does rationality play in decision-making across different cultures?

<p>It influences the perceived appropriateness of decision-making processes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the randomness error?

<p>The belief that random events have predictable outcomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way can escalation of commitment be viewed positively?

<p>Persistence in the face of failure can achieve significant goals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the ethical approach of utilitarianism assess the outcomes of decisions?

<p>By determining the overall efficiency and productivity of the outcome. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consequence might a firm face for promoting managers who avoid controversy?

<p>Organizational effectiveness may decline over time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best describes the concept of anchoring bias?

<p>Setting an initial salary expectation with little flexibility. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What could potentially reduce the impact of confirmation bias?

<p>Seeking diverse sources of information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these describes the impact of emotional experiences on availability bias?

<p>Vivid emotional experiences are more likely to be recalled. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the process of making a satisficing choice?

<p>Choosing the first acceptable option encountered (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might escalated commitment affect a decision maker's evaluation of new information?

<p>It may lead to a biased interpretation favoring initial decisions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivates risk-averse individuals in decision-making?

<p>The dislike for uncertainty and preference for guaranteed outcomes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best represents the concept of bounded rationality in decision making?

<p>It implies that decisions are often influenced by emotional and social factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do some experts remain skeptical about intuitive decision making?

<p>It is difficult to measure and analyze effectively. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can overconfidence bias negatively affect decision making?

<p>It causes people to underestimate the information required for good decisions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception related to anchoring bias?

<p>It leads people to give undue weight to the first piece of information they encounter. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is considered a characteristic of intuitive decision making?

<p>It engages emotions and relies on holistic associations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a suggested method to reduce biases in decision making?

<p>Triangulating on the focal issue by drawing on multiple sources. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of decision making does overconfidence bias primarily affect?

<p>The accuracy of estimates and confidence levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of a satisficing approach over a rational decision-making model?

<p>It requires less time and resources to reach a decision. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way can intuitive decision making complement rational decision making?

<p>By forming hypotheses to test against objective data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When might a fast-and-frugal process be preferable in decision making?

<p>When the stakes of a decision are low. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does emotional engagement play in intuitive decision making?

<p>It enhances the quality of the decisions made. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes systematic biases in decision making?

<p>They can distort rationality by simplifying choices. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can ethical concerns be affected by bounded rationality?

<p>It restricts awareness of duties toward others. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What behavior is likely to be exhibited by CEOs at risk of termination?

<p>They become more risk averse. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What typically influences a person's risk preference during stressful situations?

<p>They may become risk-seeking to avoid negative outcomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is hindsight bias?

<p>The belief that outcomes were predictable beforehand. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does personality affect decision-making processes, particularly for achievement-oriented individuals?

<p>They escalate their commitment to avoid failure. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of respondents in South Korea chose to push the heavy man off the bridge?

<p>0% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the impact of self-esteem on decision-making?

<p>It increases susceptibility to the self-serving bias. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ethical criterion emphasizes protecting individual rights such as free speech?

<p>Deonance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what situation do women tend to improve their decision-making quality compared to men?

<p>In stressful situations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does answering questions in a non-native language have on utilitarian viewpoints?

<p>Increases the likelihood of utilitarian choices (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which perspective emphasizes making decisions based on moral norms or laws?

<p>Deonance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is closely linked to the tendency to ruminate and overanalyze among individuals?

<p>Gender differences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does mental ability have on decision-making with regards to common decision errors?

<p>It assists in avoiding some errors but not all. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What increasingly influences consumer choices regarding goods and services?

<p>Effective CSR initiatives (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of behavioral ethics?

<p>Emphasizes global ethical standards (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What tendency might be observed in individuals who are high in achievement-striving?

<p>They may exhibit hindsight bias. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might organizations influence the decision-making styles of their employees?

<p>By creating an environment that constrains decision choices. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect may raise ethical decision making in organizations according to the content?

<p>Encouraging discussions about moral issues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major challenge when addressing individual rights and social justice in decision making?

<p>Increased ambiguity and uncertainty (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of the self-serving bias in individuals with high self-esteem?

<p>They tend to rationalize their mistakes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivates managers to adopt utilitarian perspectives in decision making?

<p>Organizational and stockholder interests (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can increase the likelihood of risk-averse behavior in decision-making?

<p>Framing decisions negatively. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does gender play in the cognitive processes involved in decision making?

<p>Women tend to analyze past decisions more than men. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might environmental aspects such as cleanliness affect decision making in organizations?

<p>Affect perceptions of ethical behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a whistle-blower?

<p>Someone who reports unethical practices to authorities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What may escalate commitment in decision-making?

<p>An inflated perception of success. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains the potential difficulty individuals have in recognizing their own moral shortcomings?

<p>Moral blind spots (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of value is most often associated with a utilitarian approach to ethics?

<p>Greatest good for the majority (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is corporate social responsibility becoming more integral to business practices?

<p>It helps attract consumers and talent (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage of the three-stage model of creativity?

<p>Problem formulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the stage of information gathering in the creative process?

<p>Incubating possible solutions in the mind. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does idea generation typically occur?

<p>A mix of solo and collaborative efforts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about idea evaluation is true?

<p>It requires evaluating potential solutions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do incentives play in promoting honesty?

<p>They increase the likelihood of honesty. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is associated with higher creative potential?

<p>Intelligence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it recommended that those who evaluate ideas should differ from those who generate them?

<p>To reduce bias in the evaluation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential effect of creative behavior in organizations?

<p>Innovation and novel solutions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can creative information gathering be enhanced?

<p>By engaging with individuals from different fields. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT typically associated with creative potential?

<p>Strict adherence to rules (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the founders of Eco Safety Products recognize as a significant issue?

<p>Unsafe chemical compounds in paints (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an innovative method used by Mark Cuban for idea evaluation?

<p>Crowdsourcing uniform designs from fans. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines creative behavior?

<p>Actions that produce novel and useful ideas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ultimate goal of the three-stage model of creativity?

<p>To foster an environment where innovative ideas thrive. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ethical dilemma might a Canadian facing business practices in China encounter?

<p>Should I pay a bribe to secure business? (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is lying a common ethical issue in decision making?

<p>It is difficult for others to detect. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What common myth about body language and lying has been disproven by researchers?

<p>Body language can indicate lying reliably. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which technique in lie detection has shown little empirical support according to researchers?

<p>Analyzing facial expressions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mark Twain suggested that we should train ourselves to do what regarding lying?

<p>Lie thoughtfully. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor tends to influence an individual's tendency to lie in the future?

<p>Their past experiences with undetected lies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding our ability to detect lies?

<p>People are often very good at detecting liars. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an important first step in reducing personal lying, according to behavioral scientists?

<p>Stop lying to oneself. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What underlying reason do researchers believe contributes to the prevalence of lying?

<p>Lying begins at a very early age. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the research suggest about reading people's expressions for detecting lies?

<p>It yields little reliable information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is suggested as a method to encourage organizations to foster honest behavior?

<p>Reward honesty within the workplace. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the conclusions drawn by psychologist Maria Hartwig about lie detection?

<p>Verbal communication is more informative than body language. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of a bad liar might help in detecting lies?

<p>They lack meticulousness in their stories. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

To whom did research suggest that people may have a heightened ability to detect lies?

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What does the phrase 'moral hypocrisy' refer to in the context of self-perception about lying?

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Flashcards

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to the world around us.

Attribution Theory

A theory that explains how we judge others' behavior by attributing it to either internal factors (dispositional) or external factors (situational).

Decision Making

The process of selecting, interpreting, and using information to make decisions.

Rational Model

A model of decision making that assumes individuals are rational, have complete information, and make the best possible choice.

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Bounded Rationality

A model of decision making that acknowledges the limits of our rationality, such as time constraints and incomplete information.

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Intuition

A decision-making approach that relies on gut feelings and experience rather than conscious analysis.

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Individual Differences

Individual differences, such as personality traits and values, can influence our decision-making processes.

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Organizational Constraints

Organizational factors, such as policies, procedures, and resources, can influence our decision-making.

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Factors Influencing Perception

Factors that influence how individuals interpret information.

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Perceiver

The person making the interpretation, including their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences.

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Target

The person or object being observed. This includes physical attributes and behaviors.

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Situation

The context or surrounding environment in which perception occurs.

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Selective Perception

The tendency to see what we want to see, rather than objective reality.

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Halo Effect

The process of associating an individual with a particular group.

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Projection

The tendency to judge others based on our own expectations.

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Attribution

Assigning meaning to a behavior based on its assumed cause.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

Our tendency to overemphasize internal factors over external ones when explaining someone's behavior.

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Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute our own successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors.

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Cultural Influences on Perception

The assumption that people from different cultures hold different values or beliefs.

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Past Experiences

The influence of past experiences on our current perceptions.

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Expectations

The impact of our expectations on our ability to accurately perceive reality.

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Why Perception is Important in OB

The importance of understanding perception in the study of Organizational Behavior.

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Target and Background Influence on Perception

The relationship of a target with its surrounding environment can influence our perception. We tend to group things that are close or similar together.

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Stereotyping and Assumptions

Our assumptions about people based on easily recognizable characteristics can lead to stereotypes, which can be harmful. For example, judging someone's workplace capabilities based on their criminal record without considering the circumstances.

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Context and Perception

The context of the situation can significantly alter our perception of things. For example, seeing someone dressed formally might seem unusual in a casual setting but normal in a formal event.

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Unconscious Perception

People are generally unaware of the factors influencing their perception of reality. They tend to underestimate their own perceptual biases.

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Awareness and Bias Control

Increased awareness of our own biases motivates us to control them and recognize them in ourselves.

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First Impressions and Morality

The perception of others is influenced by first impressions and minimal information, particularly when judging their moral character.

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Factors Influencing Attribution

When determining if a person's behavior is internally or externally caused, we consider three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.

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Distinctiveness in Attribution

Distinctiveness refers to whether someone behaves differently in different situations. For example, if someone is always late but arrives on time for a particular meeting.

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Consensus in Attribution

Consensus refers to whether everyone in the same situation behaves the same way. If everyone in the company is late due to a traffic jam, it implies consensus.

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Consistency in Attribution

Consistency refers to whether someone consistently behaves the same way over time. If someone is always late, regardless of the circumstances.

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Internally Caused Behavior

Internally caused behavior is attributed to the individual's control and personality, like being late due to oversleeping.

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Externally Caused Behavior

Externally caused behavior is attributed to external factors beyond the individual's control, like being late due to traffic.

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Attribution Theory for Perception

Attribution theory helps us understand how we perceive others' behavior and form judgments based on our interpretation of their actions.

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Consensus

The likelihood that multiple people would react similarly in the same situation.

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Distinctiveness

The extent to which a person behaves similarly across different situations.

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Consistency

How consistently a person behaves in a particular situation.

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Person Perception

The process of interpreting and evaluating information about people to form impressions of them.

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Group Stereotypes

The tendency to make group-based attributions, often using stereotypes about an entire group.

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Consistency in Behavior

When someone's behavior is perceived differently based on how frequently they behave that way.

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Horns Effect

The tendency to draw a negative general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.

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Contrast Effect

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

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Stereotyping

Judging someone based on one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.

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Why are shortcuts for judging others sometimes inaccurate?

Shortcuts for judging others often allow us to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predictions. However, they can and do sometimes result in significant distortions.

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Why do we notice things that stand out?

Any characteristic that makes a person, an object, or an event stand out will increase the probability we will perceive it.

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How do our backgrounds influence our perceptions?

Because we can’t observe everything going on around us, we use selective perception. But we don’t choose randomly: We make selections based on our interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

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How do heuristics simplify our decision-making?

We deal with our complex world’s unmanageable number of stimuli by using stereotypes or shortcuts called heuristics to make decisions quickly.

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What is the main issue with stereotyping?

One problem with stereotypes is that they are widespread generalizations, although they may not contain a shred of truth when applied to a particular person or situation.

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How do our perceptions shape our viewpoint?

It should be obvious by now that our perceptions, many of which are near-instantaneous and without conscious deliberation, color our outlook.

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What is a common stereotype about male nurses?

Male nurses in many countries report that gender stereotyping generalizes inaccurately that nursing is a profession for women only because men lack the patience, empathy, and compassion required to succeed as a nurse.

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How can stereotyping influence legal outcomes?

The degree to which black defendants in murder trials looked “stereotypically black” essentially doubled their odds of receiving a death sentence if convicted.

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Why does thinking about ethics impact good choices?

Think briefly about the ethics of your morning choices when you first wake up, and you’ll be much more likely to be on time.

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First Impressions in Interviews

First impressions matter a lot in interviews. These initial judgments, often made within a few seconds, can be hard to change, even with later information. The first 4 or 5 minutes of an interview are crucial and set the tone for the rest of the conversation.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

The perception of a person's performance is strongly influenced by the manager's expectations. If a manager expects high performance, employees are more likely to deliver. Conversely, low expectations can lead to lower performance.

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Performance Evaluation Biases

When evaluating performance subjectively, there are various biases that can cloud our judgment. These biases might include focusing only on the positive, comparing employees to each other unfairly, or letting past performance influence current evaluations.

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Positive Stereotype Effects

Even positive stereotypes can be harmful. They can lead to pressure to perform at the stereotypical level, causing anxiety and reduced performance. Positive stereotypes can also reinforce group differences and contribute to social inequalities.

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Stereotypes and Shortcuts

Stereotypes are shortcuts in our thinking that can lead to inaccurate judgments. Because they're socially learned, we must be mindful of our own biases and avoid perpetuating them.

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Perception and Decision Making

Decision-making is directly influenced by our perceptions. How we perceive information, situations, and people shapes the choices we make. Our judgments and decisions are informed by how we interpret the world around us.

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What is a problem in decision making?

A discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state that requires action.

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What is decision making?

A process where individuals make choices between two or more alternatives in response to a problem.

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What is the rational decision making model?

Decisions follow a structured approach with six steps: define the problem, identify criteria, weigh criteria, generate alternatives, evaluate alternatives, and select the best option.

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What is bounded rationality?

Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models, focusing on essential features of problems without capturing all complexity.

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What is intuition?

Decisions are made based on intuition, gut feelings, and past experiences rather than conscious analysis.

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What is satisficing?

A strategy that aims to find a satisfactory solution, not necessarily the optimal one.

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Why is 'no' uncomfortable?

The tendency to perceive saying 'no' as uncomfortable, leading to an increased likelihood of saying 'yes' to later requests, even if they are unethical.

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How do perceptions influence decisions?

Perceptions influence decisions by shaping how we interpret information, identify relevant criteria, and evaluate alternatives.

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What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to overemphasize internal factors over external factors when explaining someone's behavior.

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What is the self-serving bias?

The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

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Why are decisions often suboptimal?

Decisions made based on incomplete information, limited time, and cognitive constraints, leading to biases and errors.

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Why do we often rely on bounded rationality?

Our limited information-processing capabilities make it impossible to assimilate all necessary information for optimal decision-making, even if the information is readily available.

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Why is problem perception subjective?

Our perceptions of a problem and its severity are subjective and influenced by individual experiences and biases.

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How does perception affect information gathering?

Decisions are often made with incomplete information because our perceptions of what information is relevant are influenced by our biases and the situation.

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Why is perception important for OB?

Understanding the influence of perception on information processing, evaluation, and decision-making is critical for effective organizational behavior.

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Satisficing

A decision-making approach that prioritizes finding a satisfactory solution quickly, rather than striving for the absolute best option. This involves identifying a choice that meets a minimally acceptable level of performance and then stopping the search.

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Intuitive Decision Making

A decision-making process driven by unconscious insights and accumulated experiences, often involving gut feelings and intuition.

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Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to overestimate our abilities and knowledge, often leading to inaccurate judgments and poor decisions.

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Anchoring Bias

The tendency to fixate on the initial information presented, often leading to insufficient adjustments for subsequent information.

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Heuristics

Cognitive shortcuts or simplified rules of thumb that help us make quick decisions, but can also lead to biases and errors.

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Experience-Based Decision Making

A situation where individuals rely too heavily on their own experiences and impulses, neglecting objective data and analysis.

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Projection Bias

The tendency to judge others' behavior based on our own expectations, often leading to inaccurate assumptions.

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Availability Bias

A decision-making error that involves focusing solely on the most readily available or most recent information, ignoring other relevant information.

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Status Quo Bias

The tendency to prefer familiar choices and avoid options that involve risk or uncertainty. This can hinder innovation and exploration of new solutions.

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Confirmation Bias

A bias that leads to seeking information that confirms our existing beliefs, while neglecting or downplaying contradictory evidence.

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Affect Heuristic

The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events that are vivid or easily recalled, often due to their emotional impact.

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Representativeness Heuristic

A bias that leads to overestimating the frequency or importance of events that are personally relevant or easily recalled, making them seem more likely than they are.

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Effort Justification

The tendency to make decisions based on the amount of effort required, often choosing the easiest option even if it might not be the most optimal.

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Escalation of Commitment

A bias where we stick with our initial decision even with clear evidence of its wrongness.

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Randomness Error

The tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events.

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Risk Aversion

A preference for a sure thing over a risky outcome, even if the gamble has a higher expected value.

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Anchoring

The process of setting a starting point, often a number, in a negotiation that influences subsequent discussions.

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Anchor Adjustment

The tendency to round off numbers after an anchor is set, making the adjustment smaller.

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Selective Information Gathering

The tendency to prioritize information that reinforces our past experiences and current views.

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Bias in Information Weight

Giving more weight to supporting information and less weight to contradicting information.

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Accuracy and Confirmation Bias

The need for accuracy in decision making can decrease confirmation bias.

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Availability Bias and Memory

Events that evoke emotions, are vivid, or recent are more easily recalled.

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Availability Bias and Performance Reviews

A tendency to give more weight to recent actions in performance reviews.

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Responsibility and Escalation

Escalation of commitment is more likely when individuals feel responsible for the outcome.

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Shared Responsibility and Escalation

Sharing decision-making authority can also lead to higher escalation of commitment.

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Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome is known, that we would have accurately predicted it.

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Personality and Decision Making

Personality traits can influence decision-making, with conscientiousness and self-esteem playing significant roles.

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Conscientiousness & Escalation of Commitment

Specific facets of conscientiousness, especially achievement-striving and dutifulness, can impact escalation of commitment.

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Achievement-Striving & Hindsight Bias

Achievement-oriented individuals may be more susceptible to hindsight bias due to their desire to justify their actions.

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Self-Esteem & Self-Serving Bias

People with high self-esteem tend to use the self-serving bias to protect their self-image, attributing successes to themselves and failures to external factors.

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Gender & Decision-making under Stress

In stressful situations, men tend to become more egocentric and risk-seeking, while women become more empathetic and their decision-making improves.

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Rumination & Gender Differences

Women tend to ruminate more than men, overanalyzing problems and decisions, potentially leading to increased regret and depression.

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Mental Ability & Decision Errors

Mental ability does not guarantee immunity to common decision errors like anchoring, overconfidence, and escalation of commitment.

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Organizational Constraints on Decision-Making

Organizations can set limits on decision-making, influencing available information and resources.

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Risk Aversion in Organizations

Organizations benefit from risk-averse employees since they are less likely to leave due to a perception of having more to lose.

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Framing Effects and Risk Aversion

The framing of a decision can significantly impact risk aversion, with positive framings leading to more risk-averse behavior and negative framings leading to riskier behavior.

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Risk Preference Reversal

People may be more likely to engage in risky behavior when trying to prevent a negative outcome than when seeking a positive outcome.

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Stress and Risk Preferences

Stress can amplify risk preferences, leading to risk-seeking behavior in situations attempting to avoid negative outcomes and risk-averse behavior when seeking positive outcomes.

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Utilitarianism

An ethical perspective that prioritizes actions that produce the greatest good for the largest number of people.

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Whistleblower

Individuals who expose unethical practices within an organization to external parties like the media or government agencies.

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Deonance

An ethical perspective where decisions are based on a sense of obligation to follow moral norms, principles, rules, or laws.

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Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

A framework for businesses to consider their social and environmental impact along with their financial performance.

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Behavioral Ethics

The study of how people behave when facing ethical dilemmas, exploring factors that influence their choices.

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Moral Blind Spots

This refers to the tendency to see ourselves as more ethical than we actually are and others as less ethical.

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Ethical Relativism

Cultures have different ethical standards, what's ethical in one culture may not be in another.

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Utilitarian Viewpoint in Ethics

Actions taken to save the most lives even if it means harming one individual.

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Rights-Based Ethics

Decisions based on protecting fundamental liberties and rights, like free speech and privacy.

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Justice-Based Ethics

Ethical decisions are made based on fairness and ensuring an equitable distribution of costs and benefits.

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Environmental Signals in Ethics

This refers to the influence of environmental factors like signs of wealth, status, and cleanliness, on ethical behavior.

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Ethical Dialogue in Organizations

Encourage open conversations about ethical issues within organizations to promote ethical decision-making.

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Balancing Ethics with Efficiency

The challenge of balancing individual rights and social justice with the need for organizational efficiency and profitability.

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Public Pressure on Corporate Social Responsibility

The influence of public pressure on organizations to behave ethically and sustainably, impacting their bottom line.

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Environmental Influence on Ethical Behavior

Understanding how environmental factors, such as physical surroundings and social cues, can affect ethical decision-making.

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Cultural Differences in Decision Making

Decision-making is not universally the same. Cultural factors influence how decisions are made. For example, Indonesians approach decision making differently than Australians.

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Time orientation and Decisions

Cultural differences in time orientation impact how quickly decisions are made. Cultures with a slower pace may take more time to reach a decision.

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Rationality and Culture

The importance of rationality in decisions varies across cultures. While rationality is valued in North America, it is not as crucial in other cultures.

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Problem-solving & Acceptance in Decision Making

Cultures differ in their focus on problem-solving vs. accepting situations. Some cultures actively seek solutions, while others accept situations as they are.

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Group vs. Individual Decision Making

Decision-making processes are influenced by cultural norms. Japanese decision-making is group-oriented, aiming for consensus, while U.S. decision-making can be more individualistic.

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Organizational Constraints on Decisions

Organizations impose constraints on decision-making, influencing managers to adapt their choices to align with organizational goals, rules, and pressures.

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Performance Evaluation Systems and Decisions

Performance evaluation systems can influence managers to focus on aspects that are positively perceived, even if it hinders addressing crucial issues.

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Reward Systems and Decisions

Reward systems influence decision makers by providing incentives for certain choices, potentially encouraging risk aversion or conservative decision-making.

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Formal Regulations and Decisions

Formal regulations and policies limit decision choices, dictating how tasks and processes should be handled, leaving little room for individual discretion.

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Time Constraints and Decisions

Time constraints imposed by deadlines can force managers to make decisions without gathering all necessary information, potentially impacting the quality of their choices.

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Historical Precedents and Decisions

Historical precedents and past choices influence current decisions, shaping the context and constraining the available options.

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Ethical Decision-Making: Utilitarianism

Ethical considerations should be central to all organizational decision-making. Utilitarianism is one ethical framework that focuses on maximizing good outcomes for the majority.

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The Impact of Lying on Decisions

Lying can significantly impact decision-making, eroding trust and compromising organizational integrity. Honesty fosters a strong foundation for effective decision-making.

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Ethical Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making involves making choices that are not only beneficial but also morally sound. It's essential to consider the long-term implications of decisions on stakeholders and the organization.

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Decision Making Process

Decision-making involves choosing the best alternative from a set of options. This process requires careful consideration of factors, options, and potential consequences.

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Moral Hypocrisy

The tendency to overestimate our own moral compass compared to that of others, making us believe we're more ethical than we actually are.

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Lying

The process of intentionally misleading others by providing false information.

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Lie Detection Technique: Up and to the Right

A technique used by police officers to detect lies based on the theory that people look up and to the right when they lie. However, research has not supported this theory's validity.

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The 'No' Discomfort

The increased probability of saying 'yes' to future requests, even unethical ones, because saying 'no' can feel uncomfortable.

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Underestimating Our Lying

The tendency to underestimate the degree to which we lie, leading to an overestimation of our own morality.

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Learning to Lie

Individuals learn to lie because they often get away with it. When lies succeed or go undetected, the likelihood of lying in the future increases.

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Preventing Lying Environments

Managers need to eliminate situations where lying is possible for employees to prevent dishonest behavior.

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Rewarding Honesty

Rewarding and valuing honesty is crucial for creating a work environment that discourages lying.

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Creating a 'No-Lie' Environment

Our natural tendency to lie is influenced by the environment we're in. Creating a lying-unfriendly environment can help prevent dishonesty.

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Truth Leaking Out

The truth often leaks out even if someone is trying to conceal it, making lie detection more likely.

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Preventing Lies Through Organizational Culture

The most effective way to prevent lying in organizations is to create a culture that discourages it through ethical behavior and leadership.

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Creative Outcomes

Creative outcomes are ideas or solutions considered novel and useful by relevant stakeholders. Novelty alone doesn't guarantee creativity; usefulness is crucial.

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Cultural Differences in Creativity

The perception that different cultures have different levels of creativity might be misleading. While there can be cultural differences, individual creativity varies greatly within each culture.

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Leadership's Role in Creativity

Good leadership is vital for nurturing creativity. Leaders who are supportive, transparent, and promote employee growth foster a more creative environment.

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Diversity and Creativity in Teams

Team diversity can boost creativity, especially when team members actively understand each other's perspectives and have a shared knowledge base.

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Newcomers and Creativity

New team members can bring fresh ideas and perspectives, but often face challenges in being fully recognized and included initially.

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Creative Ideas and Implementation

Creative ideas are more likely to be implemented when individuals are motivated and have strong networking skills to champion their ideas.

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Bias Against Creativity

People often have a bias against accepting creative ideas due to the uncertainty they bring. This reluctance might hinder the exploration of innovative solutions.

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Rational vs. Bounded Rationality

The rational decision-making model assumes individuals make logical decisions based on complete information. However, in reality, people often rely on simplified models and make decisions that are 'good enough' rather than optimal.

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Problem Formulation

The stage of creative behavior involving identifying a problem or opportunity that needs a solution, which is yet unknown.

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Information Gathering

The stage of creative behavior where knowledge is sought and possible solutions to a problem incubate in an individual's mind.

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Idea Generation

The process of creative behavior where possible solutions to a problem are developed from relevant information and knowledge.

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Idea Evaluation

The process of creative behavior that involves evaluating potential solutions to problems to identify the best one.

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Intelligence and Creativity

A facet of creative potential that refers to a person's ability to understand and solve complex problems.

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Tolerance for Ambiguity

A facet of creative potential referring to the willingness to take risks and try new things, even if they may fail.

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Originality

A facet of creative potential, it’s the ability to see things from different perspectives and to connect seemingly unrelated ideas.

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Persistence

A facet of creative potential that enables individuals to focus their attention on a specific problem or challenge while remaining open to new information and ideas.

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Open Communication

A facet of creative environment that encourages collaboration and open communication, allowing ideas to flow freely.

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Support for Risk Taking

A facet of creative environment that promotes experimentation and risk-taking, allowing individuals to explore new approaches without fear of failure.

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Diversity

A facet of creative environment that encourages diversity in perspectives and backgrounds, fostering a wider range of ideas.

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Recognition and Rewards

A facet of creative environment that emphasizes the significance of creative work and its impact on the organization. It fosters motivation and enthusiasm.

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Learning Orientation

A facet of creative environment that emphasizes the importance of learning and growing, fostering a culture of continuous improvement.

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Resource Availability

A facet of creative environment that refers to the availability of resources such as time, information, and tools to support creative activities.

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Psychological Safety

A facet of creative environment characterized by a tolerant and accepting atmosphere, where individuals are comfortable sharing their ideas without fear of criticism or judgment.

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Working Memory

The ability to recall and process multiple pieces of information related to a task.

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Need for Cognition

A personality trait that reflects a strong desire to learn and engage in cognitive activities.

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Openness to Experience

One of the Big Five personality traits, characterized by a willingness to embrace new experiences, be open to different ideas, and think divergently.

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Self-Efficacy

The belief in one's own abilities and capabilities, which is positively correlated with creativity.

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Positive Affect

A state of positive emotions and a general sense of wellbeing, which can enhance creativity by fostering a more open and optimistic mindset.

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Mad Genius Theory

The idea that individuals with certain mental illnesses, like bipolar disorder, may be more prone to creative thinking and unusual ideas.

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Expertise

The foundation of creative work, encompassing knowledge, skills, and expertise in a particular field.

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Intrinsic Motivation

The motivation to engage in creative activities because they are inherently enjoyable and fulfilling.

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Creative Environment

An organizational climate that values and encourages creativity, fostering a culture where innovative ideas can flourish.

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Psychological Empowerment

The freedom to make decisions about how to complete tasks, influencing employee creativity.

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Structural Empowerment

The link between employee creativity and their freedom to decide how and what to work on, as a result of organizational structures.

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Structural Empowerment

A situation where the company's structure allows employees the freedom to make decisions and explore creative ideas.

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Job Characteristics and Creativity

Jobs that offer complexity, autonomy, and clear expectations for innovation are strongly associated with innovative behavior.

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Radical Creativity

Creative ideas that significantly change the status quo and introduce something entirely new.

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Individuality and Creativity

Countries that value individuality and emphasize personal uniqueness are more likely to foster a creative environment.

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Study Notes

Perception and Individual Decision Making

  • Perception is a process of organizing and interpreting sensory impressions to understand the environment. It's important because behavior is based on perceived reality, not objective reality.
  • Factors influencing perception:
    • Perceiver: Attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations can shape perceptions. Example: supervisors with early morning habits might view early-arriving employees as more conscientious.
    • Target: Characteristics of the target (e.g., relationship to background, grouping by similarity) and how it is perceived influences perception. Example: target's differences from expectations may be considered favorably.
    • Situation: Context (time, location, light, heat) can influence perception. Example: noticing someone in formal attire in a management class (but not on a social night out).

Attribution Theory

  • Attribution theory explains why we judge people differently based on the meaning we give to their behaviors.
  • It determines whether a behavior is internally or externally caused.
  • Internally caused behaviors are believed to be under the individual's control.
  • Externally caused behaviors are attributed to the situation.
  • Factors determining attribution:
    • Distinctiveness: Does the person act differently in other situations?
    • Consensus: Do others in similar situations act the same way?
    • Consistency: Does the person act the same way repeatedly over time?
  • Errors/biases in attribution:
    • Fundamental attribution error: Overestimating the impact of internal factors and underestimating external factors when judging others.
    • Self-serving bias: Attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors.
    • Cultural variations: Attributions differ across cultures.

Shortcuts in Judging Others

  • Selective perception: We only notice certain stimuli depending on our interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
  • Halo/Horns effect: Drawing positive/negative impressions based on one prominent characteristic.
  • Contrast effect: Evaluation influenced by recently encountered people who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.
  • Stereotyping: Judging someone based on their group membership. This can create distortions in perception and decision-making.

Perception and Decision Making

  • Decision making is a choice from multiple alternatives, often based on perception and interpretation.
  • Problems arise from gaps between desired and current states. Perception affects whether a situation is a problem, and what action may be needed.
  • Decision making involves screening, processing, and interpreting information. Biases in perception distort decision-making process
  • Saying "no" and ethical behavior are interconnected. Perceiving an action as ethical can change our behavior if our actions are seen as unethical by others.

Decision Making in Organizations

  • Rational Decision-Making Model: A six-step model assuming complete information, unbiased evaluation of alternatives, and selection of the optimal choice.
  • Bounded Rationality: Making decisions with limited information and processing capabilities; selecting "good enough" options.
  • Intuition: Making decisions based on unconscious processes and distilled experience; often complementary to rational analysis.

Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making

  • Overconfidence bias: Overestimating our abilities and the quality of information.
  • Anchoring bias: Over-reliance on initial information, adjusting insufficiently for new information.
  • Confirmation bias: Seeking/interpreting information that confirms existing beliefs.
  • Availability bias: Assessing probability of events based on the ease of remembering instances of those events.
  • Escalation of commitment: Persisting with a failing course of action due to sunk costs.
  • Randomness error: Believing one can predict outcomes of random events or inventing patterns.
  • Risk aversion: Preference for a sure thing over riskier prospects/options, unless the negative/loss is large.
  • Hindsight bias: Assessing past events as having been predictable.

Influences on Decision Making

  • Individual differences: Personality (conscientiousness, self-esteem), gender, mental ability, and cultural background influence decision making.
  • Organizational constraints: Organizational performance evaluation systems, reward systems, formal regulations, time constraints, and historical precedents influence decision making.

Ethics in Decision Making

  • Three ethical criteria:
    • Utilitarianism: Greatest good for the greatest number of people.
    • Rights: Respecting fundamental liberties.
    • Justice: Fair and impartial treatment of all.
  • Behavioral ethics: Analyzes how people act in ethical dilemmas; reveals that ethical behavior depends on the situation.
  • Lying: Lying is a significant ethical challenge and difficult to detect.

Creativity and Innovation

  • Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas,

    • Three-stage model:
      • Problem formulation: Identifying problems/opportunities requiring novel solutions.
      • Information gathering: Learning about the problem/opportunity and collecting relevant information.
      • Idea generation: Developing potential solutions.
      • Idea evaluation: Evaluating ideas to find the best solution.

  • Causes of creative behavior:

    • Creative potential: Intelligence, personality, expertise, motivation.
    • Creative environment: Motivation, reward systems, organizational support for creativity, job characteristics, culture, leadership

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in ethical decision-making within nonprofit organizations. Questions cover misconceptions about employee behavior, the influences on perception, and the effects of bounded rationality. Test your understanding of ethical frameworks and models of creativity as they apply to the nonprofit sector.

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