Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which plant family does Eragrostis tef belong to?
Which plant family does Eragrostis tef belong to?
What type of plant is Eragrostis tef?
What type of plant is Eragrostis tef?
Where was Eragrostis tef first domesticated?
Where was Eragrostis tef first domesticated?
What part of the Eragrostis tef plant is predominantly used for consumption?
What part of the Eragrostis tef plant is predominantly used for consumption?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the native distribution of Eragrostis tef?
What is the native distribution of Eragrostis tef?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following describes the typical preparations for consuming arugula?
Which of the following describes the typical preparations for consuming arugula?
Signup and view all the answers
What classification best describes arugula in terms of its life cycle?
What classification best describes arugula in terms of its life cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
Which parts of arugula are typically utilized for culinary purposes?
Which parts of arugula are typically utilized for culinary purposes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic native distribution of arugula?
What is a characteristic native distribution of arugula?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes the growth form of arugula?
Which statement best describes the growth form of arugula?
Signup and view all the answers
What major issue did common names of plants pose during the Age of Herbals?
What major issue did common names of plants pose during the Age of Herbals?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following correctly describes the impact of Theophrastus on plant classification?
Which of the following correctly describes the impact of Theophrastus on plant classification?
Signup and view all the answers
What was the primary advantage of Carl Linnaeus's binomial nomenclature over earlier naming systems?
What was the primary advantage of Carl Linnaeus's binomial nomenclature over earlier naming systems?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is NOT a rule from the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature regarding binomial names?
Which of the following is NOT a rule from the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature regarding binomial names?
Signup and view all the answers
During which period was the expansion of herbal works significantly influenced by the invention of the printing press?
During which period was the expansion of herbal works significantly influenced by the invention of the printing press?
Signup and view all the answers
What prompted early human populations to transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural practices?
What prompted early human populations to transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural practices?
Signup and view all the answers
What was one of the significant societal changes resulting from the domestication of plants?
What was one of the significant societal changes resulting from the domestication of plants?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following questions is commonly posed by ethnobotanists and cultural anthropologists when studying early agriculture?
Which of the following questions is commonly posed by ethnobotanists and cultural anthropologists when studying early agriculture?
Signup and view all the answers
What can be inferred about the lifestyle of present-day hunter-gatherers based on early practices?
What can be inferred about the lifestyle of present-day hunter-gatherers based on early practices?
Signup and view all the answers
How did the domestication of plants affect human environmental control?
How did the domestication of plants affect human environmental control?
Signup and view all the answers
What factor led to the domestication of plants according to the hypothesis discussed?
What factor led to the domestication of plants according to the hypothesis discussed?
Signup and view all the answers
What role did weeds play in the development of agriculture according to Anderson's theory?
What role did weeds play in the development of agriculture according to Anderson's theory?
Signup and view all the answers
What was the primary development noted at the archeological site of Jarmo regarding agricultural practices?
What was the primary development noted at the archeological site of Jarmo regarding agricultural practices?
Signup and view all the answers
What geographic area is considered a principal center for the origin of agriculture?
What geographic area is considered a principal center for the origin of agriculture?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the significance of the caryopsis in cereal crops?
What is the significance of the caryopsis in cereal crops?
Signup and view all the answers
Which process contributes to the formation of the hexaploid bread wheat?
Which process contributes to the formation of the hexaploid bread wheat?
Signup and view all the answers
How did early agricultural societies likely discover leavened bread?
How did early agricultural societies likely discover leavened bread?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the base chromosome number (N = 7) indicate in relation to bread wheat?
What does the base chromosome number (N = 7) indicate in relation to bread wheat?
Signup and view all the answers
What historical evidence demonstrated early cultivation practices of cereal grains?
What historical evidence demonstrated early cultivation practices of cereal grains?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main purpose of tempering during the milling process of wheat grains?
What is the main purpose of tempering during the milling process of wheat grains?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about durum wheat is NOT accurate?
Which of the following statements about durum wheat is NOT accurate?
Signup and view all the answers
What part of the wheat grain primarily serves as the food source for the developing embryo during germination?
What part of the wheat grain primarily serves as the food source for the developing embryo during germination?
Signup and view all the answers
What condition is required for winter wheat to successfully germinate and survive?
What condition is required for winter wheat to successfully germinate and survive?
Signup and view all the answers
Which wheat species is classified as diploid among the provided options?
Which wheat species is classified as diploid among the provided options?
Signup and view all the answers
How are flowering plant fruits primarily classified based on their origin from flower structure?
How are flowering plant fruits primarily classified based on their origin from flower structure?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the pericarp in fruit development?
What is the function of the pericarp in fruit development?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement accurately distinguishes between superior and inferior ovaries in flowering plants?
Which statement accurately distinguishes between superior and inferior ovaries in flowering plants?
Signup and view all the answers
Which layer of the pericarp is considered the innermost layer surrounding the seeds?
Which layer of the pericarp is considered the innermost layer surrounding the seeds?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following characteristics is typical of the Rose (Rosaceae) family fruits?
Which of the following characteristics is typical of the Rose (Rosaceae) family fruits?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fruits produced by the subfamily Rosidae is classified as an aggregate fruit?
Which of the following fruits produced by the subfamily Rosidae is classified as an aggregate fruit?
Signup and view all the answers
What is true about the stone fruit known as a drupe?
What is true about the stone fruit known as a drupe?
Signup and view all the answers
Which botanical structure is primarily associated with the production of pomes in the subfamily Maloidae?
Which botanical structure is primarily associated with the production of pomes in the subfamily Maloidae?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic distinguishes the raspberry and blackberry from strawberries?
Which characteristic distinguishes the raspberry and blackberry from strawberries?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following fruits is NOT correctly matched with its type?
Which of the following fruits is NOT correctly matched with its type?
Signup and view all the answers
What is one significant benefit legumes provide to the soil?
What is one significant benefit legumes provide to the soil?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements accurately describes the symbiotic relationship between legumes and Rhizobium bacteria?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the symbiotic relationship between legumes and Rhizobium bacteria?
Signup and view all the answers
Which ancient legume crop is believed to have existed for at least 7,000 years?
Which ancient legume crop is believed to have existed for at least 7,000 years?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the approximate protein content of dried kidney beans?
What is the approximate protein content of dried kidney beans?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of fruit do legumes produce?
Which type of fruit do legumes produce?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Botanical Information
- Eragrostis tef belongs to the grass family (Poaceae)
- It is an herbaceous annual plant
- Its native distribution is in the Ethiopian highlands
History as a Food Plant
- Eragrostis tef was first domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands
- Ethiopia is where it is most widely grown
Utilization
- The seeds are the part of the plant that is used for food
- The seeds are processed into flour, which is used to make injera, a flatbread staple in Ethiopia
Botanical Information
- Eruca vesicaria belongs to the Brassicaceae family.
- It is an herbaceous annual.
- It is native to the Mediterranean region and parts of Asia.
Utilization
- Leaves are the part of the plant used as food.
- It is consumed raw in salads and as a garnish, or used as a cooked ingredient in various dishes.
History of Plant Classification
- Theophrastus developed the first plant classification system around 2300 years ago
- He identified key characteristics like Pea, Grass, Sunflower, and Mustard
- The Age of Herbals (1470-1670) expanded on Theophrastus’s work following the invention of the printing press
- During this time, herbal manuscripts listed illustrations of plants and their medicinal properties using common names.
- Common names posed problems because the same name could refer to different species or one species could have multiple names and different languages often used different common names
- A Latin-based system of nomenclature was developed
- This system was initially a polynomial nomenclature which was simplified by Carl Linnaeus
- Linnaeus’ binomial system is still used today
- The species name consists of a generic name and a species epithet
Plant Species
- A biological species is defined as a group of individuals that can interbreed with one another but not with individuals of another species
- This definition is impossible to apply in practice because spatially separated populations of the same species may not easily interbreed
- Plants cannot move to other members like animals
- Some plant species may form fertile hybrids when crossed
- Plant taxonomists use morphological form to classify and describe species, but this also problematic
- Large changes in morphology may result from simple genetic changes
- Plants are "plastic"
- Their morphology depends on the environmental conditions in which they grow
- This includes light levels, touch, etc.
- Evolution is constantly altering morphological form
Evolutionary Relationships of Flowering Plants
- Morphologically-based classifications are known as phenetic classification systems
- Conservative characters, like floral characters are generally favored
- The publication of Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species" increased interest in phylogenetic approach to classification, in which evolutionary relationships are emphasized
- Information on the ancestral relationships of flowering plants is needed but the fossil record is poor
- Recent advancements in molecular biology have increased our knowledge of the phylogenetic relationships of plants
- There are two competing theories on flowering plant evolution
- Adolf Engler believed the earliest evolved flowers were small, structurally simple, and wind-pollinated
- Joseph D. Hooker believed the earliest evolved flowers were large with numerous floral parts
- Hooker's theory is accepted today
Flowering Plants: Monocots and Eudicots
- Traditional plant classification recognizes two major groups: the monocotyledons (or monocots) and the eudicotyledons (or eudicots)
- This division is based on the number of cotyledons
- Monocots have a single cotyledon and eudicots have two
- Several additional morphological features distinguish the two groups, but there are exceptions
- Recent genetic investigations have revealed that a third group, known as the magnoliid Angiosperms, evolved prior to the divergence of the monocots and eudicots
Early History of Plants and People
- Domestication of plants started approximately 10,000 years ago.
- Before domestication, humans lived as hunter-gatherers, surviving by collecting food in their environment.
- Hunter-gatherer populations were kept low due to limited food supplies, requiring a nomadic lifestyle to find food throughout the year.
- Plants were vital to early societies, providing food, medicines, and psychoactive substances.
- Hunter-gatherers had deep knowledge of plants, understanding their life cycles, habitats, and edible parts.
- The transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer life to agriculture was driven by various factors like reliable food sources, trade routes, and water supply.
- Agriculture led to reliable food supplies, larger populations, greater control over the environment, permanent settlements, and specialization.
- Ethnobotanists and anthropologists investigate the origins of agriculture, focusing on its centers, causes, dependency, crop evolution, and cultural impact.
Theories of Agricultural Development
- Sauer's Hypothesis (1950s): Population growth led to settlements in less ideal areas, forcing people to domesticate plants for year-round food.
- Anderson's Weed Precursor Theory (1952): Weeds were crucial in plant domestication. Hybridization in disturbed habitats led to rapid genetic variation, creating new food plants that were then cultivated.
- Binford and Flannery (1960s): Early gatherers were skilled botanists, selectively cultivating plants based on need. Population pressure and environmental changes pushed them towards cultivation.
Centers of Agricultural Origin
- Three main centers of agricultural origin: Asia Minor (Near East), Mesoamerica, and the Andean region.
- Asia Minor (Near East):
- Initial settlements centered around semiarid regions like Iran, Iraq, and Eastern Turkey (excluding Mesopotamia, which was settled later).
- Archeological site: Jarmo.
- 10,000 years ago: wild grains collected.
- 8,750 years ago: wheat was the primary cereal crop, along with barley, goat, sheep, and later pig domestication.
- Over the next century, other plants were domesticated including peas, lentils, vetch, grape, olive, date, pears, and cherries.
- 7,000 years ago: people moved into the Tigris-Euphrates valleys, securing reliable water and food sources.
- By 6,000 years ago, sophisticated urban civilizations developed in these valleys.
Impact of Agriculture on Crop Plants
- Loss of shattering: Seed staying attached to the plant instead of falling off prevented degradation and preserved food reserves.
- Increased food reserves (starch) in the seed: Competition in dense plantings favored seedlings with more food reserves, leading to larger plants and survival.
-
Selection related to weeds:
- Weeds germinating with crops but shedding their seeds before harvest maintained their populations.
- Mimicry by weeds, developing seeds that mimicked the crop in size and maturity prevented easy separation, leading to their spread.
- Rye is believed to have developed in this way, starting as a weed in early European wheat fields.
Geographic Origin and Spread of Plants
- Most common food plant origins were limited geographically.
- Introduction of new crops had significant impacts on agriculture and diets.
-
Europe:
- Romans introduced Mediterranean crops like peas, oats, rye, and herbs to Northern Europe.
- Arabic colonization brought rice, sugar cane, sorghum, and citrus fruits to Spain.
- European conquest of the Americas spread corn (maize) and potatoes globally.
-
Asia:
- Rice is a key indigenous crop in Asia.
- Introductions from the Americas include corn, papaya, pineapple, potato, sweet potato, tapioca, and chili pepper.
- Coffee originated from Northeast Africa.
-
Africa:
- Indigenous crops: coffee, sorghum, millet, yam, cowpeas, watermelon, sesame, and palm oil.
- Introductions from Asia include coconut, rice, and bananas.
- Mango and eggplant came from the Near East.
- Root crops (cassava, sweet potatoes), corn, and beans were brought from the Americas.
-
Americas:
- Central and South America had a wide range of indigenous crops: corn, cassava, potato, sweet potato, peanuts, tomato, chili peppers, and beans.
- North America had few native crop plants.
- Colonists introduced sugar cane, bananas, rice, citrus fruits, breadfruit, and coffee to subtropical America.
The Green Revolution and its Impact
- Crop breeding focused on high yield: sacrificing resistance to diseases and pests.
- High-yield crops: required more resources (fertilizer, water, herbicides, pesticides), and mechanized harvesting, making them expensive.
- Impact on developing nations: High-yield crops are expensive to maintain, making them less accessible to developing nations that lack resources.
- Vulnerability to weather anomalies: High-yield crops are susceptible to extreme weather events, leading to crop damage (lodging).
- Green Revolution: boosted crop yields but promoted technological farming, beneficial to wealthy countries but potentially harmful to developing nations.
- Plant monocultures: Large-scale plantations of a single genotype. Increased susceptibility to outbreaks due to lack of genetic resistance.
- Irish Potato Famine (1845-1846): Example of monoculture vulnerability. The entire Irish potato crop was derived from a single plant, making it susceptible to blight resulting in widespread famine.
- "Vicious cycle" of pest and pathogen resistance: Newly developed resistant crops face evolving pests and pathogens, requiring constant development of new resistance.
Genetic Engineering and Its Controversies
- Genetic engineering: Involves introducing genetic information from different organisms into crop plants.
- Benefits: Resistance to pests, pathogens, and herbicides.
-
Concerns:
- Escape into natural habitats and hybridization with native plants.
- Unnatural modifications raise issues of safety and health.
- Expensive seeds are inaccessible to farmers in developing countries.
Genetic Diversity
- Importance: Crucial for developing new crop varieties, crops, and medicines.
- Loss of biodiversity: Many older, less productive plant varieties have disappeared with the development of new ones. This genetic variation could be useful in modern breeding programs.
- Preservation: Efforts are underway to conserve older varieties and protect natural ecosystems worldwide.
Cereal Crops
- Cereal crops are a significant part of global agriculture, with wheat, rice, and corn being crucial.
- Cereals are concentrated food sources, primarily composed of carbohydrates (starch) and some protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
- They are easily stored due to their low water content.
- These "true" cereals belong to the Grass family (Poaceae), known for their dry, indehiscent fruits called caryopses.
- The caryopsis is mostly seed, with a fused pericarp (fruit wall) to the seed coat.
Bread Wheat
- Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) originated in Asia Minor (present-day Iraq).
- It's a hexaploid, meaning it has six sets of chromosomes, developed through a series of hybridizations and chromosome doublings:
- Two diploid parents (2N = 14) hybridize and double their chromosomes, resulting in a tetraploid (2N = 28).
- The tetraploid backcrosses with a diploid, leading to a hybrid with 2N = 42 chromosomes after another hybridization and doubling.
- The final hexaploid has 42 chromosomes (6N = 42).
- Archaeological evidence in Jarmo (Iraq) shows cultivation of four cereal grains 9,000 years ago.
- Grains were initially heated to remove inedible parts, then ground into meal for porridge or gruel.
- Accidental fungal yeast infection likely led to leavened bread and alcoholic beverages.
- The two main types of wheat are bread wheat (hexaploid) and durum wheat (tetraploid).
- Durum wheat, with its hard grain and low gluten content, is used for pasta, couscous, and bulgur.
- Other wheat types include diploid einkorn wheat and tetraploid emmer wheat, first cultivated in Asia Minor around 8,000 years ago.
- Spelt wheat, another hexaploid species, is closely related to bread wheat and grown as a specialty crop.
- Modern bread wheat has numerous hexaploid varieties, categorized into spring and winter wheat.
- Spring wheat is sown in spring and has a 90-day growing season (March-May) and is common in cool temperate regions.
- Winter wheat is sown in fall, germinates in late fall, overwinters as seedlings, and is harvested in mid-summer.
- It requires moist fall weather, a mild winter, and adequate snow cover.
- Black stem rust fungus is a significant pathogen for wheat, and breeding programs focus on resistance against this and other fungal pathogens.
- A wheat grain (caryopsis) consists of three parts: germ, bran, and endosperm (white flour).
- The germ, rich in oils and protein, is about 6% of the grain.
- The bran, including the seed coat, aleurone layer, and husk, comprises about 4% and contains protein, enzymes, and fiber.
- The endosperm, primarily starch, forms the majority (85-90%) of the grain and serves as the food source for the growing embryo.
Processing Wheat
- Wheat grain processing involves cleaning, tempering, and crushing.
- Cleaning removes glumes and inedible parts.
- Tempering involves moistening the grain to toughen the bran and prevent fragmentation.
- Crushing separates the bran and germ from the endosperm (flour).
- The bran and germ, high in protein, minerals, fats, and vitamins, are used for cattle feed, breakfast cereals, and whole-grain flours.
Corn (Maize)
- Hybrid vigor in corn is maintained by crossing inbred lines.
- Hybrids (obtained by crossing inbred lines) are stronger and healthier than purebreds.
- Corn has separate male ("tassels") and female ("ears") flowering shoots.
- Traditional hybrid vigor maintenance involved complex double-crossing programs.
- Male-sterile lines, developed in the 1960s, simplified the process but inadvertently introduced susceptibility to southern corn blight.
- This led to a devastating crop failure in the United States in 1970, highlighting potential risks of genetic manipulation.
- Recent molecular genetic evidence suggests corn evolved from a mutated wild grass, teosinte.
Rice
- Early rice cultivation evidence is found in China and Southeast Asia.
- Rice needs hot, humid climates with high rainfall.
- Commercial varieties ("paddy rice") require continuous submergence in water for 2-3 months.
- "Upland rice" thrives in high rainfall areas with saturated soils and doesn't require submergence.
- Rice demands nutrient-rich soil, especially nitrogen, and is labor-intensive.
- Rice cultivars are broadly categorized into long-grained (indica) and short-grained (sativa).
- Common types include Indian basmati (long-grained, aromatic), Asian glutinous (short-grained, sticky when boiled), Italian (short-grained, for risotto), and Thai jasmine (long-grained, fragrant).
- Hybridization has significantly increased rice crop yields.
- Rice processing involves threshing and pearling/polishing.
- Threshing separates grains from the chaff (outer cover).
- Pearling and polishing remove the bran and germ to produce white rice.
- This process leads to a loss of fiber and nutrients.
- Polished white rice is about 92% starch, lacks gluten proteins, and has a low protein content.
- Polishing removes thiamine (vitamin B1), leading to thiamine deficiency and potentially beriberi disease.
- Beriberi symptoms include weight loss, reduced sensory perception, limb pain, weakness, and emotional disturbances.
Other Cereal Crops
- Oats: Primarily used for cattle feed, oats have a high protein content (the highest among cereals) but lack gluten proteins.
- Rye: Originated from S. montanum, rye thrives in cool climates and tolerates nutrient-poor soils.
- It is mainly grown for fodder but is also used for bread flour, especially in eastern Europe.
- Rye flour produces dense, dark, and bitter bread due to low gluten content.
- Fungal Ergot: Rye can be infected with fungal ergot during wet seasons, causing severe symptoms like convulsions, paralysis, gangrene, and hallucinations due to ergotamine, LSD, and alkaloid compounds contained in ergot.
- It is long and dark and is generally allowed in crops at acceptable levels by the FDA.
- These symptoms, known as St. Anthony's Fire, were linked to historical events like witch trials, demonic possessions, and religious visions due to ergot-contaminated rye bread.
- Wide-scale ergot poisoning epidemics occurred into the 20th century.
- Fewer outbreaks have occurred since then due to careful monitoring of rye in developed countries.
- Sorghum: Native to Africa, sorghum is grown as a grain crop in Asia, India, Africa, and the southern United States.
- Sorghum is drought-resistant, thrives in warm to hot temperatures, and is a good source of carbohydrates and protein.
- Historically, sorghum was a staple food and bread grain in Africa.
- It is now primarily used as forage and fodder for cattle and pigs.
- Sorghum flour must have the embryo removed to prevent rancidity.
- Barley: Early evidence suggests barley was the first domesticated cereal, around 10,000 years old.
- Barley is grown in cool-temperate climates and tolerates salinity.
- It is mainly used as animal fodder.
- The high-starch variety is processed into malt barley for beers and whiskeys.
- Malt barley goes through soaking, germination, drying, and concentration steps, resulting in thick, syrupy malt.
- Millets: A collective term for various cereal crops grown in hot, dry tropical regions.
- Millets tolerate drought and poor soil conditions.
- They are widely grown in India, Pakistan, and parts of Africa.
- The whole grains store well but quickly turn rancid when ground.
- Millets lack gluten proteins and cannot be used for leavened bread.
Fruits and Nuts
- Botanically, a fruit is the mature ovary of a flowering plant containing seeds.
- It includes structures like beans, cereal grains, nuts, and berries.
- The seeds develop from fertilized ovules, and the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, which encloses the seeds.
- The pericarp has three layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
- Flowering plants are classified by ovary position (superior or inferior) and fruit type (dry or fleshy).
- Simple fruits develop from a single ovary on a single flower, aggregate fruits from multiple ovaries on a single flower, and multiple fruits from multiple ovaries and flowers.
Rose Family
- Large family of mostly temperate species.
- Include the raspberry, blackberry, and strawberry.
- Rose fruits are fleshy, showy, and dispersed by animals.
- They are economically important and grown commercially in temperate regions.
Subfamily Rosoidae
- Includes raspberry, blackberry, and strawberry.
- All produce an aggregate fruit, which is not botanically a berry.
- Raspberry and Blackberry: The receptacle remains after picking, and the fruit consists of many drupelets (each seed encased in sweet pulp).
- Strawberry: The fleshy receptacle is also eaten, and the fruit consists of numerous achenes (nut-like simple fruits).
Subfamily Prunoidae
- Includes plum, peach, nectarine, apricot, cherry, and almond.
- Produce a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stone that encloses the seed).
- Stone fruits are native to Eastern and Central Asia.
- Almond is a roasted seed, with an inedible woody pericarp.
Subfamily Maloidae
- Includes apple, pear, and quince.
- Produce pome fruits that develop from an inferior ovary.
- The sweet part is from hypanthium tissue, which envelops the ovary.
- The inedible core is the pericarp.
- Apple cultivars are mostly triploid and therefore sterile, propagated vegetatively.
Tomato Family
- Large family with worldwide distribution.
- Includes domesticated plants like tobacco, potato, and medicinal species.
- Produce true berries, including tomato, sweet and hot pepper.
- Tomato: Native to Central America, domesticated by Mayans.
- Pepper: Native to Central America, with many cultivars varying in size and spiciness due to capsaicin in the placental tissue.
Citrus Family
- Mostly restricted to tropical and subtropical areas.
- Produce large, showy, and fragrant flowers.
- Include lemon, lime, orange, mandarin, grapefruit, pomelo, kumquat, Seville orange, and makrut lime.
- Produce aromatic oils for cosmetics and food additives.
- Important source of vitamin C.
Soapberry Family
- Includes longan, litchi, rambutan, and akee.
- Akee is native to tropical West Africa and is widely grown in Jamaica.
- Only the aril (fleshy part around the seed) is edible when the fruit is fresh and has opened naturally.
- Immature or over-ripe akee can cause "Jamaican vomiting sickness."
- Guarana is a species from the Amazon region, containing caffeine, used to make a popular caffeinated beverage.
Mulberry Family
- Produce multiple fruits.
- Includes mulberry, fig, breadfruit, and jackfruit.
- Mulberry: White and black mulberries are minor temperate crops.
- Fig: Subtropical fruit commercially significant.
- Breadfruit: Starchy, must be cooked, was transported during the famous Mutiny on the Bounty.
- Jackfruit: Sweet, fleshy segments with a pineapple-melon flavor.
Temperate Fruits
- Grape: Native to the Eastern Mediterranean, used for fresh fruit, dried raisins, and wine.
- Pomegranate: Native to the Middle East, multi-seeded fruit with aril (red juicy pulp around the seeds).
- Kiwi: Indigenous to China, commercialized in New Zealand, also grown in California.
- Olive: Native to the Mediterranean, produces olive oil, fruit must be treated with caustic soda to remove bitter alkaloid.
Tropical Fruits
- Many are wild-harvested or grown commercially on a small scale.
- Some are not easily transported and consumed locally.
Legumes
- Legumes are part of the Fabaceae family, which includes both herbaceous plants and trees.
- Legumes produce a single-chambered pod with seeds attached along one edge, known as a legume.
- Legumes are high in protein (25-30%), comparable to red meat and are a crucial protein source for vegetarians and those in regions where meat may be scarce.
- Legumes have a mutualistic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) that live in root nodules.
- Rhizobium convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate, usable by plants, benefitting both species.
Economically Important Legumes
- Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris): Native to Central and South America, it is a versatile bean that can be eaten both fresh and dried.
- Pea (Pisum sativum): Cultivated for over 7,000 years, the pea is a vital protein source in many regions.
- Soybean (Glycine max): Native to East Asia, the soybean is the most important legume crop globally, used in various products from food to industrial oils.
- Peanut or Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea): Native to Central and South America, the peanut is characterized by its underground fruit.
- Tropical Pulses: A diverse group of legumes that are crucial protein sources in many tropical regions of the world, including lima beans, broad beans, chickpeas, black gram, mung beans, black-eyed beans, asparagus beans, pigeon peas, and lentils.
- Carob (Ceratonia siliqua): Native to Southwest Asia, carob pods are rich in protein and sugar and used as an edible “sweetmeat”.
- Tamarind (Tamarindus indica): Native to India, tamarind pods are also used as a sweetmeat and are essential in many tropical cuisines.
- Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum): Native to the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia, fenugreek is used both medicinally and as a spice.
- Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra): Native to the Mediterranean region and Central Asia, liquorice has been used for its medicinal and culinary properties since ancient times.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
This quiz explores the botanical and historical significance of Eragrostis tef, a vital grain in Ethiopian cuisine. Learn about its characteristics as a grass species, its domestication history, and its utilization in making the traditional flatbread, injera. Test your knowledge on this essential agricultural plant and its importance in Ethiopian culture.
