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Questions and Answers
Which plant family does Eragrostis tef belong to?
Which plant family does Eragrostis tef belong to?
What type of plant is Eragrostis tef?
What type of plant is Eragrostis tef?
Where was Eragrostis tef first domesticated?
Where was Eragrostis tef first domesticated?
What part of Eragrostis tef is primarily utilized?
What part of Eragrostis tef is primarily utilized?
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How is Eragrostis tef processed for utilization?
How is Eragrostis tef processed for utilization?
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What part of the arugula plant is primarily used for food?
What part of the arugula plant is primarily used for food?
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How is arugula typically prepared for consumption?
How is arugula typically prepared for consumption?
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Which statement accurately describes the type of plant arugula is?
Which statement accurately describes the type of plant arugula is?
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What is the native distribution of arugula?
What is the native distribution of arugula?
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What primary goal does plant classification aim to achieve?
What primary goal does plant classification aim to achieve?
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Which plant classification system was established by Carl Linnaeus?
Which plant classification system was established by Carl Linnaeus?
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What significant problem did early plant classification systems face regarding common names?
What significant problem did early plant classification systems face regarding common names?
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What was the main innovation of the binomial naming system compared to previous methods?
What was the main innovation of the binomial naming system compared to previous methods?
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Which characteristic accurately describes the rules of binomial nomenclature?
Which characteristic accurately describes the rules of binomial nomenclature?
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What major incentive led human populations to abandon a nomadic lifestyle for agriculture?
What major incentive led human populations to abandon a nomadic lifestyle for agriculture?
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How did the shift to agriculture impact human societies?
How did the shift to agriculture impact human societies?
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Which of the following questions is NOT typically asked by ethnobotanists regarding agriculture?
Which of the following questions is NOT typically asked by ethnobotanists regarding agriculture?
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What role did early hunter-gatherers play in understanding plant life?
What role did early hunter-gatherers play in understanding plant life?
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What was a significant outcome of reliable, stable food supplies from agriculture?
What was a significant outcome of reliable, stable food supplies from agriculture?
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Which of the following best describes the main nutritional component of cereal grains?
Which of the following best describes the main nutritional component of cereal grains?
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What type of fruit do cereal grains produce?
What type of fruit do cereal grains produce?
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How many chromosomes does the final hexaploid form of bread wheat have?
How many chromosomes does the final hexaploid form of bread wheat have?
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What was a significant consequence of the accidental fungal yeast infection in wheat gruel?
What was a significant consequence of the accidental fungal yeast infection in wheat gruel?
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Which of the following accurately reflects the initial processing of cereal grains?
Which of the following accurately reflects the initial processing of cereal grains?
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What is the primary method of propagation for modern triploid apple cultivars?
What is the primary method of propagation for modern triploid apple cultivars?
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Which of the following plants belongs to the Tomato Family?
Which of the following plants belongs to the Tomato Family?
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What significant impact did plant breeding programs have on tomatoes?
What significant impact did plant breeding programs have on tomatoes?
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What traditional view did Europeans have regarding tomatoes when they were first introduced?
What traditional view did Europeans have regarding tomatoes when they were first introduced?
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Which compound in capsicum peppers contributes to their hotness?
Which compound in capsicum peppers contributes to their hotness?
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What is the primary family classification of eggplant?
What is the primary family classification of eggplant?
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In which regions do members of the pumpkin family predominantly thrive?
In which regions do members of the pumpkin family predominantly thrive?
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What type of fruit is developed from the female flower of the pumpkin family?
What type of fruit is developed from the female flower of the pumpkin family?
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Which of the following berries is part of the genus Vaccinium?
Which of the following berries is part of the genus Vaccinium?
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What characteristic is common among plants in the Heath family?
What characteristic is common among plants in the Heath family?
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What primary characteristic distinguishes legumes from other plant families?
What primary characteristic distinguishes legumes from other plant families?
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What benefit do legumes provide to the soil after their decomposition?
What benefit do legumes provide to the soil after their decomposition?
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What is the protein content of dried kidney beans?
What is the protein content of dried kidney beans?
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Which of the following statements best describes the mutualistic relationship between legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria?
Which of the following statements best describes the mutualistic relationship between legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria?
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What is a major global significance of legumes?
What is a major global significance of legumes?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes legumes or pulses?
Which of the following statements accurately describes legumes or pulses?
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What is the role of nitrates released from decomposing legume parts in the soil?
What is the role of nitrates released from decomposing legume parts in the soil?
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Which species of legume is native to Central and South America and is known for its high protein content?
Which species of legume is native to Central and South America and is known for its high protein content?
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Why are legumes considered important forage for domestic animals?
Why are legumes considered important forage for domestic animals?
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Study Notes
Botanical Information
- Eragrostis tef belongs to the Poaceae family, also known as the grass family.
- It is an herbaceous annual.
- Its native distribution is in the Ethiopian highlands.
History as a Food Plant
- Originally domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands.
- It is most widely grown in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and other parts of East Africa.
Utilization
- The grain of the plant is used as a food source.
- It is typically processed by grinding into flour.
Botanical Information
- Arugula (Eruca vesicaria) is a member of the Brassicaceae family, also known as the mustard family.
- It is a herbaceous annual plant.
- Arugula is native to the Mediterranean region, including Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia.
Utilization
- The leaves of arugula are the edible part of the plant.
- Arugula can be eaten raw in salads or cooked in dishes.
History of Plant Classification
- Theophrastus developed the first plant classification system around 2300 years ago.
- The Age of Herbals (1470-1670) relied on illustrations and medicinal properties, but common names caused confusion.
- Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial system of nomenclature in 1753, still used today.
- Binomial system uses a generic name and species epithet, like Picea glauca for white spruce.
- International Code of Botanical Nomenclature guides the use of scientific plant names.
Plant Species
- The biological species concept defines a species as a group that can interbreed but not with other species.
- This concept is difficult to apply to plants due to hybrid formation, agamospermy, and environmental influence on morphology.
- Plants are considered plastic by scientists, their morphology can change drastically in response to environment and evolution.
Evolutionary Relationships of Flowering Plants
- Phenetic classification utilizes numerous characters with a focus on conservative characters (unchanged by environment).
- Phylogenetic classification focuses on evolutionary relationships.
- Engler hypothesized that primitive flowers were small and wind-pollinated.
- Hooker believed early flowers were large, with numerous floral parts.
- The Hooker system is currently accepted, with 300-350 flowering plant families.
- Molecular studies have confirmed the evolutionary validity of the Hooker-Bessey-Cronquist system.
Flowering Plants: Monocots and Eudicots
- Monocots have a single cotyledon in their seed, while eudicots have two.
- Monocots are herbaceous, have floral parts in multiples of three, and possess linear, parallel-veined leaves.
- Eudicots can be herbaceous or woody, with floral parts in multiples of four or five, broad, net-veined leaves.
- Magnoliid Angiosperms are a third group that evolved prior to monocots and eudicots.
Early History of Plants and People
- Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers for most of their existence.
- Plant domestication began around 10,000 years ago.
- Hunter-gatherers had extensive knowledge of plant life, habitat, and edible parts.
- Plant domestication led to more reliable food, larger populations, and control over the environment.
- Settlements provided access to resources allowing for a sedentary lifestyle and specialization.
- Ethnobotanists and cultural anthropologists ask key questions about the origins of agriculture, including its locations, drivers, and impacts on society.
Origins of Agriculture
- Agriculture is the deliberate cultivation of crops.
- It ensured a year-round food supply and was often accompanied by animal domestication.
- Agriculture likely developed independently in three regions: Asia Minor, China-Southeast Asia, and the Americas.
- Earliest evidence of agriculture is from arid regions, specifically the Fertile Crescent in Asia Minor.
- Reasons for development in this region include:
- Need for a reliable food source.
- Presence of wild cereal crops suitable for domestication.
Theories of Domestication
- Childe (Neolithic Revolution): During dry periods, humans and animals congregated at watering holes. Soil disturbance favored "weedy" grass species, predecessors of modern cereal crops.
- Sauer (Favorable Habitats): Sedentary existence first developed in favorable habitats. As populations grew, less optimal areas were settled, leading to plant domestication for a year-round food supply.
- Anderson (Weed Precursor): Hybridization of plants in disturbed habitats led to genetic variations and new food plants.
- Binford and Flannery (Applied Botanists): Early gatherers were sophisticated botanists who cultivated plants according to need. Population pressure or climate change forced cultivation.
Centers of Agricultural Origin
-
Asia Minor (Near East):
- Semi-arid region of Iran, Iraq, and eastern Turkey, excluding Mesopotamia.
- Jarmo site (Iraq) demonstrates:
- Wild grains were collected 10,000 years ago.
- Wheat became the main crop 8,750 years ago, alongside barley, goats, sheep, and eventually pigs.
- Additional plants were domesticated in the following century (peas, lentils, vetch, grape, olive, date, pears, and cherries).
- Populations moved to the Tigris-Euphrates valleys around 7,000 years ago for stable water and food.
- Sophisticated urban civilizations emerged in the valleys by 6,000 years ago.
Plant Breeding: Genetic Modification
- The Green Revolution was fueled by advances in crop breeding, soil fertility, pest control, and mechanization.
- Genetic Crossing and Back-crossing: Standard methods for developing new cultivars and maintaining hybrid vigor in crops like corn.
- Artificial Doubling of Chromosome Number (Polyploidy): Induced by colchicine from Colchicum crocus, results in larger, more robust plants and plant parts.
- Genetic Mutation: Can occur naturally or be induced artificially through irradiation. Useful mutations are then propagated or cloned.
- Genetic Engineering: Adds genetic information from other organisms into crop plants. Used for pest, pathogen, and herbicide resistance, but faces consumer concerns about safety, environmental impact, and accessibility.
- Genetic Diversity: Maintaining diversity is crucial for developing new crops and medications. Loss of older varieties and natural ecosystems is concerning as they contain potential genetic resources.
Genetic Engineering vs. Genetic Modification
- Genetic Modification is a broad term encompassing various methods of altering plant and animal genetics, including traditional breeding.
- Genetic Engineering refers specifically to crops altered using modern biotechnology techniques, involving the direct manipulation of an organism's genome.
- GM utilizes existing genes, while GE introduces new genetic material.
Cereal Crops
- Cereal crops like wheat, rice, and corn were crucial for the development of agriculture worldwide.
- Cereal grains are concentrated food sources, primarily containing carbohydrates (starch) with some protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
- They store well due to their low water content.
- All "true" cereals belong to the Grass (Poaceae) family, a large and economically important group of monocots.
- Grasses are highly evolved flowering plants producing a dry, indehiscent fruit (caryopsis) which is mostly seed.
- The pericarp (fruit wall) is hard, thin, and fused to the seed coat.
Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
- Believed to have originated in Asia Minor (modern-day Iraq).
- Modern bread wheat is a hexaploid hybrid of three genera (Triticum, Agropyron, and Aegilops), resulting from a series of hybridizations and chromosome doubling events.
- The base chromosome number, N, is 7.
- Initial hybridization involved two diploid parents (2N=14 each) forming a tetraploid (2N=28) after hybridization and chromosome doubling.
- This tetraploid was backcrossed with a diploid parent (2N=14), resulting in a hybrid with 2N=42 chromosomes after further hybridization and chromosome doubling.
- The final hexaploid has 42 chromosomes (6 times the base chromosome number).
Key facts about wheat
- Archaeological evidence from Jarmo (Iraq) shows cultivation of four types of cereal grains 9,000 years ago.
- Grains were initially heated to remove inedible parts and later ground into meal for porridge or gruel.
- Leavened bread and alcoholic beverages are thought to have originated from accidental yeast infection of wheat gruel.
- There are two main types of wheat: hexaploid bread wheat (T. aestivum) and tetraploid durum wheat (T. durum).
- Durum wheat, with its hard grain and lower gluten content, is used for pasta, semolina, couscous, and bulgar.
- "Ancient grains" like diploid einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) and tetraploid emmer wheat (T. dicoccum) were first cultivated in Asia Minor around 8,000 years ago.
- Spelt wheat (T. spelta), another hexaploid species, is closely related to bread wheat and grown as a specialty crop.
Modern Bread Wheat
- Modern bread wheat has many hexaploid varieties, primarily categorized into spring and winter wheat.
- Spring wheat, sown in spring and harvested in autumn, has a 90-day growing season (March-May) and is grown in cool temperate regions like the Canadian prairies.
- Winter wheat, sown in fall, germinates in late fall, overwinters as seedlings, and is harvested in mid-summer. It requires moist fall weather, a mild winter, and adequate snow cover.
- A significant pathogen for wheat is black stem rust fungus, and breeding programs aim to enhance resistance to this and other fungal pathogens.
- Black stem rust fungus destroys above-ground parts, absorbs nutrients, damages leaves and stems, causing crops to fall, thus reducing yield.
Wheat Grain Structure
- A wheat grain (caryopsis) consists of three parts: the germ, bran, and white flour (semolina).
- The germ (6% of the grain) is the plant embryo, rich in oils and protein.
- The bran (4% of the grain) includes the seed coat, aleurone layer, and husk, containing protein, enzymes, and fiber.
- The white flour (semolina) (85-90% of the grain) is the endosperm tissue primarily composed of starch, serving as the food source for the developing embryo during germination.
- Black stem fungus attacks the endosperm for energy.
Wheat Processing (Milling)
- Involves cleaning to remove the glumes and other inedible parts.
- Tempering involves moistening the grain to toughen the bran and prevent fragmentation.
- Crushing involves using rollers to remove the bran and germ.
- The bran and germ, rich in protein, minerals, fats, and vitamins, are used for cattle feed, breakfast cereals, and whole-grain flours.
- Separation involves separating the remaining endosperm (white flour or semolina), mostly high-energy starch.
- White flour, lacking bran and germ, keeps longer but lacks essential proteins and vitamins.
- Vitamins are often added to produce enriched flour.
- Wheat is unique among cereals as it contains all the gluten proteins (gliadin and glutenin) necessary for traditional bread-making, which produces risen or leavened bread.
- During baking, yeast ferments sugars in the flour dough, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2), which is trapped by the gluten, forming bubbles in the dough, causing it to rise and resulting in a leavened loaf of bread.
Corn or Maize (Zea mays)
- Native to Central America, corn has been cultivated for at least 7,000 years.
- Early cultivars and genetic crosses were selected for in Mexico and Peru.
- Corn was essential for the development of the Mayan, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
- Modern corn is a mutant derivative of the ancestral plant teosinte.
- Corn has separate male ("tassels") and female ("ears") flowers, allowing for easy hybridization.
Key Facts about Corn
- Corn is low in protein, especially lysine, and some vitamins like niacin compared to other cereals.
- Corn lacks gluten proteins, so only flatbreads like tortillas can be made from corn flour.
- Although originally a subtropical species, modern cultivars thrive in temperate climates, including the Canadian prairies.
- Corn has a short growing season.
- It is widely grown for livestock feed, human consumption, and bioethanol production.
- Humans consume sweet corn fresh, canned, or frozen, and it is processed into flour and meal.
- Livestock feed varieties are starchy, not sweet.
- Other cultivars include popping corn, beer, cornstarch, and specialty products.
Corn Hybridization
- Corn is genetically mutable and hybridizes easily.
- Hybrid vigor is maintained by crossing inbred lines.
- Hybrids are stronger and healthier than true breeds and are easily obtained due to separate male and female flowering shoots.
- Traditionally, hybrid vigor was maintained through complex breeding programs using double-crossing.
- Each capital letter represents a variety, which is weakest on its own.
- Crossing these hybrids results in two single crosses, but these are also weak.
- Finally, crossing these single crosses results in a double-crossed hybrid, which is the strongest.
- To simplify this process, a male-sterile line was developed in the 1960s.
- The male-sterility gene carried a susceptibility to southern corn blight, a fungal pathogen. This led to a devastating crop failure in the United States in 1970.
Rice
- Archaeological evidence shows early rice cultivation in China and Southeast Asia.
- Rice requires a hot, humid climate with high rainfall.
- Most commercial varieties ("paddy rice") need continuous submergence in water for 2-3 months.
- "Upland rice" is grown in high rainfall areas with saturated soils and does not need submergence.
- Rice demands nutrient-rich soil, especially nitrogen, and is labor-intensive.
- Seedlings are hand-planted, and grains are harvested manually in Asia, Africa, and South America. In California, seeds are broadcasted from planes and harvested mechanically.
Rice Cultivars
- Rice cultivars are categorized into two major groups: long-grained (indica) and short-grained (sativa).
- Common types include Indian basmati (long-grained, aromatic), Asian glutinous (short-grained, sticky when boiled), Italian (short-grained, for risotto), and Thai jasmine (long-grained, fragrant).
- Hybridization programs have significantly boosted rice crop yields in recent years.
- Unlike many cereals, rice is consumed with little processing.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
- An annual grass native to Africa, sorghum is grown as a grain crop in Asia, India, Africa, and the southern United States.
- It thrives in warm to hot temperatures and is drought resistant.
- Traditionally the main unleavened bread grain in Africa, sorghum has been largely replaced by wheat.
- In the U.S., it is primarily used as high-quality forage for cattle and pigs.
- The flowering head can be dried to make brooms.
- For human consumption, the embryo must be removed to prevent the flour from turning rancid.
- Sorghum is high in carbohydrates (60-75%) and protein (8-13%).
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
- Early evidence of barley cultivation exists from both Asia Minor (Syria-Iraq) and Northeast Africa (Egypt-Ethiopia), suggesting it may be the first domesticated cereal.
- It is around 10,000 years old, possibly even preceding wheat.
- Both two-row and six-row varieties are known (six-row varieties tend to have more grains per flowering head).
- Barley is grown mainly in cool-temperate climates, with both spring and winter varieties.
- It tolerates salinity and can be grown on marginal soils.
Barley Uses
- Approximately 70% of the crop is used as animal fodder.
- The remaining 30% is processed into malt barley.
- Malt barley production involves soaking and steeping the seeds, germinating them under controlled conditions (germinating seedlings have high amylase content), drying the grains, and concentrating the germinated material into thick, syrupy malt.
- Barley malt is the major ingredient of most commercial beers and whiskeys.
Millets (Various Species)
- "Millet" is a collective term referring to several cereal crop species grown in hot, dry tropical regions, primarily in India, Pakistan, and parts of Africa.
- Millet species tolerate drought and poor soil conditions.
- The whole grains store well, but quickly turn rancid when ground.
- Millets cannot be used to make leavened bread because they lack gluten proteins.
Apple Family (Rosaceae)
- Most apple and pear varieties are native to Eastern and Central Asia.
- Some pear varieties are thought to be native to Europe.
- The most important member of this family is the apple.
- There are hundreds of apple varieties, all derived from Malus domestica.
- Apple fruits develop from a five-parted inferior ovary.
- Older apple varieties are diploid and produce viable seeds, but modern cultivars are triploid and sterile.
- Triploid apple cultivars are propagated vegetatively, usually by grafting.
Tomato family (Solanaceae)
- A large eudicot family with worldwide distribution.
- Important to agricultural development in South and Central America.
- Includes domesticated species like tobacco, potato, and several medicinal and poisonous plants.
- Solanaceous fruits are true berries.
- Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is native to Central America and was first domesticated by the Mayans.
- The tomato was not initially accepted in parts of Europe due to poisonous species in the family.
- The wild progenitor of modern tomatoes was smaller and more pungent than current cultivars.
- Sweet and hot capsicum peppers (Capsicum annuum and C.frutescens) originated in Central America.
- Eggplant (Solanum melongena) originated in India.
Pumpkin family (Cucurbitaceae)
- A large eudicot family found worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.
- Most are vines with separate male and female flowers.
- The female flower's inferior ovary develops into a pepo, a modified berry-type fruit.
- Significant in agricultural development in both the Old and New Worlds.
- Important food crops in this family:
- genus Cucurbita: pumpkin, butternut squash, gourd, zucchini
- genus Cucumis: melons, cucumber
- genus Citrullus: watermelon
- Other important species: chayote, luffa gourd, bottle gourd
Heath family (Ericaceae)
- A large eudicot family found worldwide, especially in north temperate regions.
- Most species are woody shrubs that thrive in acidic soils and rely on fungal mycorrhizal associations.
- Their leaves are often evergreen, thick, and waxy.
- Includes many ornamental shrubs like rhododendrons, heathers, and heaths.
- The genus Vaccinium includes edible berries like blueberry, bilberry, lingonberry, and cranberry.
Citrus family (Rutaceae)
- Mostly restricted to tropical and subtropical regions; few members are frost tolerant.
- Most produce large, showy, and fragrant insect-pollinated flowers.
- Economically important fruit-producing species belong to the genus Citrus.
- All produce a modified berry called hesperidium, with leathery outer skin surrounding the pulp or juice sacs.
- Includes lemon, lime, orange, mandarin, grapefruit, pomelo.
- Other important species: kumquat, Seville orange, makrut lime.
- Citrus fruits produce aromatic oils for cosmetics, perfumes, and food additives.
- Vital source of vitamin C, preventing scurvy.
Soapberry family (Sapindaceae)
- Includes several Asiatic fruits like longan, litchi, rambutan.
- Akee (Blighia sapida) is native to tropical West Africa and widely grown in Jamaica.
- Most of the akee fruit is poisonous, only the fleshy arils around the seeds are edible when fresh and naturally opened.
- Consuming immature or over-ripe akee arils can cause "Jamaican vomiting sickness".
- Guarana (Paullinia cupana) is a species from the Amazonian region of South America.
- Other important species:
- Passion fruit
- Guava
- Cherimoya
- Starfruit
- Dragonfruit
- Mangosteen
Commercially Important Monocot Fruits
- Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a monocot species native to the Americas.
- Produces a large multiple fruit derived from the fusion of several individual fruits.
- Grown commercially for dessert fruit and to produce a protein-degrading enzyme.
- Banana (Musa acuminata) is a monocot species native to Eastern Asia and northern Australia.
- Sterile triploid plants are propagated from stem cuttings and produce seedless fruit.
- Female flowers form large inflorescences, allowing bunch harvesting.
- Bananas are harvested unripe and ripened artificially with ethylene gas.
- Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is thought to be indigenous to the Near East.
- Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a large monocot palm native to South Pacific Islands.
- Produces one of the world's largest seeds.
- Copra (hard endosperm) is used to produce coconut oil and flavoring.
- Coconut milk is also endosperm tissue.
Commercially Important Dicots
- Durian (Durio zibethinus) is a tall eudicot tree native to western Malaysia.
- Produces a large, prickly fruit with fleshy pulp (arils) surrounding the seeds.
- Known for its pungent aroma and complex taste.
- Avocado (Persea americana) is a large magnoliid tree indigenous to Central America.
- The mesocarp of the avocado fruit is rich in oil.
- Avocados are nutritious and high in calories, vitamins A and C, niacin, and riboflavin.
- Mango (Mangifera indica) is a large tropical tree native to India and Malaysia.
- Ripened fruit is a sweet dessert fruit.
- Unripe mango is used in Asian and Indian cooking.
- Papaya (Carica papaya) is a small tropical tree indigenous to Central America.
- The large, yellow fruit is popular in many tropical countries.
Nuts
- Botanically, a nut is a dry, one-seeded indehiscent fruit with a hard, woody pericarp.
- More commonly, the term refers to edible, high-protein seeds obtained from certain plant species.
- Important temperate nuts:
- Walnut (Juglans regia) is a large tree indigenous to Southeast Europe and Western Asia.
- Produces a drupe-like fruit with a woody endocarp (shell) containing the edible seed.
- The seeds can also be processed into high-quality cooking oil.
Legumes (Pulses)
- Belong to the Fabaceae (Legume or Pea) family
- Found worldwide
- Includes herbaceous plants like peas, beans, and lupines
- Includes woody trees like acacia, tamarind, and tropical rainforest trees
Legume Fruit
- Known as a legume
- A single-chambered pod with seeds attached along one edge (like a pea pod)
- Male and female parts are on the same flower, creating an asymmetrical shape
Seed Properties
- High in protein (25-30%)
- Comparable to red meat in protein content
- Can be eaten fresh or dried
- Essential protein source, especially where meat is scarce
- Crucial for vegetarians
Nitrogen Fixation
- Legumes produce root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium)
- Converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into nitrate (NO3)
- Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth
- Mutualistic relationship between plant and bacteria, providing sugars for bacteria and nitrogen for the plant
- Nitrogen is incorporated into plant tissues, especially seeds, as protein
Economic Importance of Legumes
-
Common or Kidney Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
- Native to Central and South America
- Cultivated for both fresh pods and dried seeds
- Dried kidney beans contain about 20% protein
-
Pea (Pisum sativum)
- An ancient legume crop (cultivated for at least 7,000 years)
- Native to the Mediterranean, Middle East, and northeastern Africa
- Seeds can be dried (25% protein) or eaten fresh
- Important source of protein in Medieval Europe
-
Soybeans (Glycine max)
- Derived from wild soya (Glycine soya)
- Native to East Asia
- Cultivated for over 3,000 years
- Seeds are rich in protein (35-40% dry weight)
- World's most important legume crop (100 million tons annually)
- Used for fresh beans, dried beans, bean sprouts, oil products, cooking oils, margarine, Asian cooking products, processed protein products, livestock & pet food
-
Peanut or Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
- Native to Central and South America
- Domesticated over 3,500 years ago
- Over 30 million tons harvested annually
- Unique feature: the flower stalk elongates after pollination, pushing the maturing fruit into the soil
- Processed into oils, animal feed, roasted snacks, pastes (peanut butter), sauces (satay)
Tropical Pulses
-
Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus)
- Big green beans native to Central and South America
-
Broad Bean (Vicia faba)
- Originated in the Old World
- Grown for centuries
-
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
- One of the oldest cultivated legumes
- Used for hummus, and key in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisine
-
Black Gram or Urd (Vigna mungo)
- Black beans with a white line
-
Mung Bean or Green Gram (Vigna radiata)
- Similar to black gram, but green with a white line
-
Black-Eyed Bean (Vigna unguiculata)
- White with black stripes
-
Asparagus or Yard-long Bean (Vigna unguiculata var.sesquipedalis)
- Viny, can climb up to 12 ft
-
Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)
- Hardy, can grow in any soil, tolerant to poor conditions
-
Lentil (Lens culinaris)
- An ancient crop from Southwest Asia
- Widely grown in India to produce dahl (lentil puree)
- Numerous drought-tolerant cultivars
Other Economically Important Legumes
-
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)
- Subtropical tree native to the Arabian Peninsula
- Large pods (St. John's Bread) containing protein and sugar
- Pods sold fresh, processed into paste (chocolate substitute)
- Seed gum is a stabilizer and thickener in food products
-
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
- Large tree native to India
- Large pods
- Sweet meat around the seeds is edible
- Important in tropical cuisines
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Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
- Native to the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia
- Used medicinally and as food since ancient times
- Important crop in India, the Middle East, and Africa
- Seed is an important spice in curry dishes
- Fresh leaves as a vegetable in India
- Dried leaves as an aromatic spice
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Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra)
- Native to the Mediterranean and central Asia
- Known to the ancient Greeks and Romans
- Cultivated for centuries as a flavoring and sweetener
Legumes
- Legumes belong to the Fabaceae family, contain both herbaceous plants and woody trees
- Legumes have fruit called a legume, a single-chambered pod with seeds attached to one edge
- Dried legume seeds have a high protein content
- Legumes are an important source of protein for vegetarians and people opposed to meat consumption
- Legumes are an essential forage for animals, with species like clover, sweet-clover, and alfalfa being important forage plants
- Legumes produce root nodules which host nitrogen-fixing bacteria, resulting in a mutualistic relationship where legumes provide sugars to the bacteria and receive nitrogen in return.
Economically important Legumes
- Common or Kidney bean is native to Central and South America, has been cultivated for its fresh pods and seeds
- Pea is an ancient legume crop, thought to be native to the Mediterranean, Middle East (Southwest Asia), and northeastern Africa
- Soybean is native to China, Japan and Korea, has been cultivated for over 3,000 years
- Peanut or Groundnut is native to Central and South America, classified as a legume
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Tropical Pulses are an important source of protein in India, Africa, Asia and South America
- Lima bean is native to Central and South America
- Broad bean originated in the old world
- Chickpea one of the oldest cultivated legumes, used for hummus
- Black gram or Urb black beans with a white line
- mung bean or green gram green beans with a white line
- black-eyed bean white beans with black stripes
- asparagus or yard-long bean viny, reaches 12ft long
- pigeon pea hardy legume
- lentil from Southwest Asia, used for "dahl" in the Indian subcontinent
- Carob is a subtropical tree native to the Arabian Peninsula, used as a chocolate substitute
- Tamarind is a large tree native to India, used for its sweet meat around the seeds
- Fenugreek is native to the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia, used for both medicinal and food consumption
- Liquorice is native to the Mediterranean region and central Asia, cultivated for flavoring and sweetening
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Description
Explore the fascinating details about Eragrostis tef, an important food plant from the grass family. This quiz delves into its botanical characteristics, historical significance as a food source, and common methods of utilization. Test your knowledge on this vital grain of the Ethiopian highlands.
