Eragrostis Tef: A Vital Ethiopian Crop

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Questions and Answers

Which plant family does Eragrostis tef belong to?

Fabaceae

Poaceae (correct)

Asteraceae

Brassicaceae

What type of plant is Eragrostis tef?

Woody perennial

Annual woody vine

Shrub-like biennial

Herbaceous annual (correct)

Where was Eragrostis tef first domesticated?

North Africa (correct)

Central Europe

Southeast Asia

South America

What part of the Eragrostis tef plant is primarily utilized for food?

Seeds Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common method of processing Eragrostis tef for utilization?

Milling Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the arugula plant is primarily utilized as food?

Leaves Signup and view all the answers

What is a common way to prepare arugula for consumption?

Raw in salads Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly identifies the type of plant arugula is?

Herbaceous annual Signup and view all the answers

What is the native distribution of arugula?

Asia and Europe Signup and view all the answers

Arugula is categorized as which of the following types of plants?

Herb Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary issue with using common names for plants during The Age of Herbals?

The same name could refer to different species, causing confusion. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic did Theophrastus primarily use to distinguish plant groups?

Visual appearance and key physical traits. Signup and view all the answers

What is a main feature of Carl Linnaeus' binomial system introduced in Species Plantarum?

It consists of a generic name and a species epithet. Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in plant classification?

It establishes rules for the formatting of scientific names. Signup and view all the answers

What major advance in plant classification occurred with the invention of the printing press?

Publication of herbal manuscripts including illustrations. Signup and view all the answers

What problem is associated with applying the biological species concept to plants?

Spatially separated populations may not interbreed. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes how environmental factors influence plant morphology?

Plants show plasticity in morphology based on growth conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the authority designation in a plant's scientific name?

It summarizes the history and classification of the plant name. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a reason why morphological classification can be problematic for plants?

External growth conditions greatly influence morphological traits. Signup and view all the answers

What role does evolution play in plant morphology?

Evolution contributes to the continuous alteration of plant forms. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the primary reasons for the domestication of plants according to the hypotheses presented?

To ensure an adequate year-round food supply as populations increased. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories emphasizes the role of weeds as precursors to domesticated plants?

Weed precursor theory Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the hypothesis of Binford and Flannery regarding early plant gatherers?

They cultivated plants according to immediate needs and pressures. Signup and view all the answers

Which area is considered one of the principal centers for the origin of agriculture?

Asia Minor Signup and view all the answers

What significant development occurred around 8,750 years ago in the region identified as Asia Minor?

Cultivation of major cereal crops like wheat. Signup and view all the answers

What was a major advantage of transitioning from a nomadic hunter-gatherer existence to settled agriculture?

Development of permanent settlements Signup and view all the answers

What is one impact of plant domestication on early human societies?

Greater food supply stability Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily encouraged early humans to abandon their nomadic lifestyle?

Access to trade routes Signup and view all the answers

What role did hunter-gatherers play in the evolution of plant domestication?

They provided detailed knowledge of plant uses. Signup and view all the answers

Which question is significant for ethnobotanists studying the history of agriculture?

Where did crop species originate? Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does loss of shattering in crop plants provide before harvest?

Seeds will stay on the plant and improve harvest efficiency. Signup and view all the answers

How does intraspecific competition affect seedling growth in dense crop planting?

Seedlings with higher carbohydrate content are favored. Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of weeds that mimic crop plants during harvest?

They complicate the separation of crop and weed seeds. Signup and view all the answers

What significant event in the 1600s affected the distribution of food crops in Europe?

The introduction of corn (maize) from the Americas. Signup and view all the answers

Which crops were introduced to Europe as a result of Arabic colonization of Spain?

Rice, sugar cane, and citrus fruits. Signup and view all the answers

How did European exploration contribute to agricultural diversity in Europe?

By introducing plants from Eastern Asia. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor in the early development of rye as a food crop?

It evolved from being a weed of wheat fields. Signup and view all the answers

Which region is most notably associated with the indigenous cultivation of rice?

Asia. Signup and view all the answers

What role did the introduction of new crops from the Americas play in the global diet?

They diversified and enriched agricultural practices. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about the nutritional composition of preferred seeds?

They are selected for higher carbohydrate and lower protein content. Signup and view all the answers

What type of fruit is a cereal grain considered to be?

Caryopsis Signup and view all the answers

What is the base chromosome number (N) for bread wheat?

7 Signup and view all the answers

Which process results in the tetraploid form of wheat?

Initial hybridization Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the first methods used for processing cereal grains?

Heating to remove inedible parts Signup and view all the answers

What significant result arose from the accidental infection of wheat gruel?

Creation of leavened bread and alcoholic beverages Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of durum wheat due to its specific grain characteristics?

Producing pasta Signup and view all the answers

Which wheat species is considered diploid?

Einkorn wheat Signup and view all the answers

What part of the wheat grain is primarily composed of starch and serves as food for the developing embryo?

White flour (semolina) Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main objectives of current breeding programs for wheat?

Enhance resistance to fungal pathogens Signup and view all the answers

Which step in the milling process helps to toughen the bran and prevent fragmentation of the grain?

Tempering Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic that distinguishes wheat from other cereal grains?

It contains all the necessary gluten proteins for bread-making. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the growing conditions for modern corn cultivars?

They adapt well to temperate climates. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of carbon dioxide produced during bread-making?

It is responsible for the rising of the dough. Signup and view all the answers

What significant change does the separation of the bran and germ from white flour produce?

Enhanced shelf life but lower nutritional quality. Signup and view all the answers

How does corn's flower structure contribute to its cultivation?

It provides a clear separation of male and female flowers. Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary use of corn in contemporary agriculture?

Primarily for livestock feed. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a nutritional drawback of corn compared to other cereal grains?

It lacks gluten proteins. Signup and view all the answers

How is sweet corn primarily utilized by humans?

In raw, canned, or frozen forms for consumption. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the presence of gluten proteins have on dough during bread-making?

It allows for the formation of bubbles that leaven the bread. Signup and view all the answers

What historical significance does corn hold in relation to ancient civilizations?

It played a critical role in the development of Mayan, Aztec, and Inca civilizations. Signup and view all the answers

Which species is the primary ancestor of all apple varieties?

Malus domestica Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of sweet and hot capsicum peppers primarily determines their heat level?

Capsaicin amount Signup and view all the answers

What was one reason the tomato was not initially accepted in Europe?

It was believed to be poisonous Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical function of the pericarp in a fruit?

To enclose and protect the seeds Signup and view all the answers

What type of fruit are members of the Tomato family classified as?

True berries Signup and view all the answers

Where did sweet and hot capsicum peppers originate?

Central America Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes how fruits are classified based on their origin?

Single, aggregate, or multiple fruits Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the pericarp is found on the outermost part?

Exocarp Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main focuses of recent plant breeding programs for tomatoes?

Increasing fruit size Signup and view all the answers

Which group initially domesticated the tomato?

Maya Signup and view all the answers

What type of fruit would a nut be classified as?

Simple dry fruit Signup and view all the answers

Which reproductive part of a flowering plant is responsible for producing pollen?

Stamen Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes flowering plant fruits?

Fleshy fruits contain seeds developed from fertilized ovules. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic trait of citrus fruits that distinguishes them from other fruit types?

They have a leathery outer skin surrounding juice sacs. Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is predominantly found in citrus fruits that helps prevent scurvy?

Vitamin C Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary health risk associated with consuming immature or over-ripe akee fruit?

Jamaican vomiting sickness Signup and view all the answers

Which family includes fruits like longan and lychee?

Soapberry (Sapindaceae) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary edible part of the akee fruit?

The flesh excluding the seeds Signup and view all the answers

Which country is recognized as the origin of eggplant?

India Signup and view all the answers

What is the fruit type that develops from the female flower in the pumpkin family?

Pepo Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following genera includes watermelon?

Citrullus Signup and view all the answers

Which plant family is known for thriving in acidic soils and often forming mycorrhizal relationships?

Heath (Ericaceae) Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a type of food crop listed in the pumpkin family?

Blueberry Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an important use of the hollowed pumpkin fruit in early civilizations?

Water storage and drinking vessels Signup and view all the answers

Which shrub is a representative member of the Heath Family known for its ornamental qualities?

Rhododendron Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main characteristics of the pumpkin family regarding its flowers?

Vines have separate male and female flowers Signup and view all the answers

What is a common preparation method for eggplant?

Fried or baked Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following berries is NOT part of the genus Vaccinium?

Mulberry Signup and view all the answers

Which legume is known to contain the highest protein content based on dry weight?

Soybean Signup and view all the answers

What unique growth characteristic does the peanut plant exhibit after pollination?

Pushes the maturing fruit into the soil Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a primary use of soybeans?

Building materials Signup and view all the answers

What is a main feature of the broad bean?

Originated in the Old World and has been grown for centuries Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following nations is NOT listed as a major producer of peanuts?

Australia Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of legumes concerning their flowers?

They have asymmetrical shapes due to the arrangement of reproductive parts. Signup and view all the answers

How do root nodules in legumes benefit both the plants and the nitrogen-fixing bacteria?

Plants offer sugars to the bacteria, while bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about dried legume seeds is true?

They contain all essential amino acids needed for a balanced diet. Signup and view all the answers

What economic role do legumes play in improving soil quality?

They fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil, enriching it over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which legume is considered to have been cultivated for at least 7,000 years?

Pea (Pisum sativum) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Botanical Information

Eragrostis tef belongs to the grass family (Poaceae).
It is a herbaceous annual plant.
It is native to Ethiopia.

History as a Food Plant

Eragrostis tef was first domesticated in Ethiopia.
It is most widely grown in Ethiopia.

Utilization

The seeds are used for food.
The seeds are processed into flour.
The flour can be used to make injera, a traditional Ethiopian flatbread.
Eragrostis tef is also used as animal feed.

Botanical Information

Eruca vesicaria belongs to the Brassicaceae family
It is a herbaceous annual plant
Its native distribution includes the Mediterranean region, North Africa and parts of Asia

Utilization

The leaves are used as a food
Arugula leaves are often eaten raw in salads or as a garnish, can also be cooked

History of Plant Classification

Theophrastus, a disciple of Aristotle, created the first plant classification system around 2300 years ago.
Theophrastus identified characteristics to distinguish plant families like Pea, Grass, Sunflower, and Mustard.
From 1470 to 1670, the Age of Herbals, printing press allowed expansion of plant classification.
Herbal manuscripts included illustrations and medicinal properties, using common names.
Common names posed communication problems because the same name could refer to different species, or one species could have multiple names.
A standard Latin-based system of nomenclature was developed, initially using a polynomial nomenclature (a generic designation followed by a descriptive Latin "phrase name")
Carl Linnaeus (Uppsala University, Sweden) simplified this system using a binomial system (a generic name and a species epithet), introduced in Species Plantarum (1753).
This binomial system is still used and includes capitalization, italicization and authority designations.

Plant Species

A biological species is defined as a group of individuals that can interbreed.
This definition is difficult to apply in plants because spatially separated populations may not easily interbreed and some plant species may form fertile hybrids.
Plant taxonomists use morphology (form, structure, and size of organisms) to classify species, with the following challenges:
- Large changes in morphology result from simple genetic changes.
- Plants are plastic; their morphology depends on the environmental conditions.
- Evolution is constantly altering morphological form.

Evolutionary Relationships of Flowering Plants

Phenetic classification systems are based on morphology, emphasizing conservative characters (characters that do not vary with environmental conditions).
Phylogenetic classification systems emphasize evolutionary relationships.
Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) increased interest in a phylogenetic approach to classification.
19th century theories regarding flowering plant evolution:
- Adolf Engler (Germany, 1844-1930): Earliest evolved flowers were small, simple, and wind-pollinated.
- Joseph D. Hooker (England, 1817-1911): Earliest evolved flowers were large with numerous floral parts.
The Hooker system (modified by Bessey, Cronquist and others) is accepted today. Molecular biology has confirmed its validity.

Flowering Plants: Monocots and Eudicots

Monocotyledons (monocots) have a single cotyledon (seed leaf).
Eudicotyledons (eudicots) have two cotyledons.
These groups are distinguished by:
- Plant Form: Monocots are herbaceous, eudicots are herbaceous or woody.
- Floral Parts: Monocots have three or multiples, eudicots have four, five or multiples.
- Leaves: Monocots have linear, sheathing leaves with parallel veins; eudicots have broad, non-sheathing leaves with net veins.
- Root System: Monocots have a short-lived primary root, fibrous root system; eudicots have a persistent primary root, taproot system.
Recent genetic studies reveal that the division of flowering plants into monocot and eudicot groups is simplistic.
A third group, magnoliid Angiosperms, evolved prior to the divergence of monocots and eudicots.

Early History of Plants and People

Domestication of plants started approximately 10,000 years ago.
Before domestication, humans were hunter-gatherers, with populations below environmental carrying capacity.
Hunter-gatherers were nomadic to find food throughout the year.
Early societies used plants for food, medicine, and psychoactive substances.
Hunter-gatherers had extensive knowledge of plants and their uses.
Plant domestication led to more reliable food supplies, larger populations, greater control over the environment, and settled communities.

Theories of Agricultural Development

Sauer (1950s) argued that abundant resources in specific locations led to human settlements, which then prompted agriculture.
Anderson (1952) proposed that weeds in human settlements were precursors to domesticated plants, with hybridization leading to new food sources.
Binford and Flannery (1960s) hypothesized that early gatherers already understood cultivation, and population growth or environmental changes led to more intensive cultivation.

Centers of Agricultural Origin

Asia Minor (Near East):
- Wild grains were collected 10,000 years ago.
- Wheat was the primary crop by 8,750 years ago, along with barley, goats, sheep, and later, pigs.
- Additional crops, including peas, lentils, grapes, olives, dates, pears, and cherries, were domesticated.
- People moved into the Tigris-Euphrates valleys around 7,000 years ago for more water and food, leading to the development of urban civilizations by 6,000 years ago.

Plant Selection for Domestication

Loss of shattering: Seeds remain on the plant during harvest, preventing loss and allowing for seed collection.
Increased food reserves: Seedlings with higher starch content grow quicker and outcompete others, leading to larger seeds with less protein.
Weedy species: Weeds often mimic crop plants, making it difficult to separate them during harvest, leading to their spread.

Geographic Origin and Spread of Plants

Food plants had limited global distributions before their introduction to new regions.
Potatoes were introduced from South America to Europe, the tomato and chili pepper to Europe and Asia, and sugarcane from Southeast Asia to the Caribbean.
Europe:
- Romans introduced Mediterranean species, including peas, oats, rye, and herbs.
- Arabic colonization introduced rice, sugarcane, sorghum, and citrus fruits.
- European conquest led to the spread of maize and potatoes to Europe.
Asia:
- Rice is an indigenous Asian crop.
- Crops introduced from the Americas include maize, papaya, pineapple, potato, sweet potato, tapioca, and chili pepper.
- Coffee was introduced from North-East Africa.
Africa:
- Indigenous crops include coffee, sorghum, millet, yam, cowpeas, watermelon, sesame, and palm oil.
- Asian introductions include coconut, rice, and bananas.
- Mango and eggplant were brought from the Near East.
- Root crops, maize, and beans came from the Americas.
Americas:
- Central and South America have a diverse range of indigenous crops, including maize, cassava, potato, sweet potato, peanuts, tomato, chili peppers, and beans.
- North America has few native food plants.
- Spanish and English colonialism introduced sugarcane, bananas, rice, citrus fruits, breadfruit, and coffee.

The Green Revolution

Crop breeding prioritizes high yield, often at the expense of disease and pest resistance.
High-yield crops require more resources, including fertilizers, water, herbicides, pesticides, and mechanized harvesting.
The Green Revolution increased crop yields but relies on intensive farming methods that may be unsustainable or too costly for developing countries.
Plant monocultures, planting single crop varieties, make crops vulnerable to diseases and pests, as seen in the Irish potato famine, caused by potato blight.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering involves adding genetic material from other organisms (e.g., plants, animals, bacteria, or viruses) into a crop plant.
GE crops offer herbicide and pest resistance but face consumer resistance, particularly in Europe.
Critics argue that GE crops could harm ecosystems and pose health risks.

Genetic Diversity

Genetic variation is crucial for developing new crop varieties and medicinal drugs.
The loss of older crop varieties could limit future breeding programs.
The destruction of ecosystems like tropical rainforests threatens a vast source of genetic diversity.

Cereal Crops

Cereal crops, especially wheat, rice, and corn, were crucial for the development of agriculture worldwide.
Cereal grains are concentrated food sources, mainly composed of carbohydrates (starch) and containing protein, oils, vitamins, and minerals.
They have a low water content, allowing for long-term storage.
All "true" cereals belong to the Grass (Poaceae) Family.
Grasses are highly evolved flowering plants producing a dry, indehiscent fruit (caryopsis).
The caryopsis is mainly composed of the seed, with the pericarp (fruit cover) fused to the seed coat.

Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Originated in Asia Minor (modern-day Iraq).
Modern wheat is a hybrid complex involving three genera: Triticum, Agropyron, and Aegilops.
The development of bread wheat involved hybridization and chromosome doubling events.
Initial hybridization combined two diploid parents (2N = 14), resulting in a tetraploid with 2N = 28.
Backcrossing the tetraploid with a diploid parent and further chromosome doubling led to a hexaploid with 2N = 42 chromosomes.
Archaeological evidence from Jarmo, Iraq, indicates wheat cultivation 9,000 years ago.
Early methods involved heating grains, grinding them into meal, and mixing with water for porridge or gruel.
Accidental fungal yeast infection likely led to the development of leavened bread and alcoholic beverages.
Two main types of wheat: hexaploid bread wheat (T. aestivum) and tetraploid durum wheat (T. durum).
Durum wheat is used for pasta, semolina, couscous, and bulgar.
Other wheats include diploid einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) and tetraploid emmer wheat (T. dicoccum), first cultivated around 8,000 years ago.
Spelt wheat (T. spelta), another hexaploid species, is closely related to bread wheat.
Modern bread wheat has several varieties, categorized into spring and winter wheat.
Spring wheat, sown in spring and harvested in autumn, is common in cool temperate regions.
Winter wheat, sown in fall, germinates and overwinters as seedlings and is harvested in mid-summer, requiring specific weather conditions.
Black stem rust fungus is a significant pathogen for wheat.
Breeding programs focus on enhancing resistance to fungal pathogens.
A wheat grain (caryopsis) can be divided into three parts: germ, bran, and white flour (semolina).
The germ is rich in oils and protein and makes up 6% of the grain.
The bran, about 4% of the grain, contains protein, enzymes, and fiber.
The white flour (semolina) constitutes 85-90% of the grain and is primarily starch.

Processing Wheat

Cleaning removes glumes and other inedible parts.
Tempering moistens the grain to toughen the bran and prevent fragmentation.
Crushing separates the bran and germ from the endosperm.
Bran and germ are used in cattle feed, breakfast cereals, and whole-grain flours.
The endosperm (white flour or semolina) is high in starch.
White flour, lacking bran and germ, has a longer shelf life but lacks essential proteins and vitamins.
Enriched flour often has added vitamins.
Wheat is unique in containing gluten proteins necessary for traditional bread-making.
During baking, yeast ferments sugars in the dough, releasing carbon dioxide that gets trapped by the gluten, causing the dough to rise.

Corn or Maize (Zea mays)

Native to Central America, cultivated for at least 7,000 years.
Early cultivars were selected in Mexico and Peru.
Critical to the development of the Mayan, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
Modern corn is a mutated derivative of the teosinte plant.
Corn has separate male (tassels) and female (ears) flowers.
Corn is low in protein, especially lysine, and some vitamins compared to other cereals.
It lacks gluten proteins, limiting flour use to flatbreads like tortillas.
Although subtropical in origin, corn grows well in temperate climates.
It has a short growing season.
Corn is widely grown for livestock feed, human consumption, and bioethanol production.
Humans consume sweet corn fresh, canned, or frozen.
It is also processed into flour and meal.
Livestock feed varieties are starchy, not sweet.
Other cultivars include popping corn, beer corn, cornstarch, and specialty products.
Corn is genetically mutable and hybridizes easily.
Hybrid vigor is maintained by crossing inbred lines.
Hybrids are stronger and healthier than true breeds.
Traditionally, hybrid vigor was maintained through complex breeding programs using double-crossing.
In the 1960s, a male-sterile line was developed, but it carried a susceptibility to southern corn blight, leading to a devastating crop failure in 1970.
Recent evidence from molecular genetics indicates that corn is a mutated derivative of teosinte.

Rice

Early cultivation occurred in China and Southeast Asia.
Rice requires a hot, humid climate with high rainfall.
Most commercial varieties ("paddy rice") require continuous submergence in water.
"Upland rice" grows in high-rainfall areas with saturated soils but doesn't need submergence.
Rice demands nutrient-rich soil, especially nitrogen, and is labor-intensive.
Rice cultivars are categorized into long-grained (indica) and short-grained (sativa), with various types including basmati, glutinous, Italian, and Thai jasmine.
Hybridization programs have increased rice crop yields.
Rice is consumed with minimal processing.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

Native to Africa, grown as a grain crop in Asia, India, Africa, and the southern United States.
Thrives in warm to hot temperatures and is drought-resistant.
Traditionally the main unleavened bread grain in Africa, largely replaced by wheat.
In the U.S., it is primarily used as livestock feed.
Grain heads are dried to make brooms.
For human consumption, the embryo must be removed to prevent rancidity.
High in carbohydrates (60-75%) and protein (8-13%).

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

Early evidence of cultivation in Asia Minor and Northeast Africa suggests it may be the first domesticated cereal (around 10,000 years old).
Both two-row and six-row varieties exist.
Grown mainly in cool-temperate climates, including both spring and winter varieties.
Tolerates salinity and can be grown on marginal soils.
Approximately 70% is used as animal fodder.
The remaining 30% is processed into malt barley using the following procedure:
- Soak and steep the seeds.
- Germinate the seeds under controlled conditions to increase amylase content.
- Dry the grains.
- Concentrate germinated material into thick, syrupy malt.
Barley malt is essential for most commercial beers and whiskeys.

Millets (Various Species)

Collective term for several cereal crop species grown in hot, dry tropical regions, including India, Pakistan, and Africa.
Tolerate drought and poor soil conditions.
Whole grains store well but quickly become rancid when ground.
Lack gluten proteins, preventing leavened bread production.

Fruit

Botanically, a fruit is a matured ovary of a flowering plant, containing seeds.
Fruit classification:
- Superior ovary: Ovary is positioned above the flower.
- Inferior ovary: Ovary is positioned below the flower.
- Fleshy fruit: Contains water and is juicy (e.g. apples, oranges).
- Dry fruit: Lacks moisture (e.g. nuts, grains)
- Simple fruit: Derived from a single ovary of a single flower.
- Aggregate fruit: Derived from multiple ovaries fusing on a single flower.
- Multiple fruit: Derived from multiple ovaries and flowers.

Rose Family (Rosaceae)

A large family of eudicots with showy flowers that are insect-pollinated.
Majority of species are found in temperate regions.
Rose fruits are fleshy, large, and showy.
Apples are a significant member - all varieties are derived from Malus domestica (domestic apple).
Fruits are developed from a five-parted inferior ovary.
Older apple varieties are diploid and produce viable seeds.
Modern apple cultivars are triploid and sterile (due to chromosome mismatch in meiosis). These cultivars are propagated vegetatively.

Tomato Family (Solanaceae)

A large family of eudicots of worldwide distribution.
Importance in South and Central American agricultural development.
Major fruit source and contains other domesticated species such as tobacco, potato, and medicinal plants.
Fruits are true berries.
Edible Solanaceous fruits include:
- Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
  - Native to Central America, first domesticated by the Mayans.
  - Initially considered poisonous in Europe due to toxic Solanaceous species (e.g. henbane).
  - Wild progenitor was smaller and more pungent than modern varieties.
- Sweet and hot capsicum peppers (Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens)
  - Originated in Central America.
  - Hybrids from related Capsicum species.
  - Vary in size, "hotness" due to capsaicin, concentrated in the placental tissue.
- Eggplant or Aubergine (Solanum melongena)
  - Originates in India.
  - Varied in size, shape, and color.
  - Common in India and parts of Europe.
  - Flesh is fried or baked.

Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae)

A large eudicot family mostly found in tropical and subtropical regions.
Majority of species are vines with separate male and female flowers.
Female flowers develop into a pepo, a modified berry fruit.
Important in agricultural development in the Old and New Worlds.
Cultivated genera:
- Cucurbita: Pumpkin, butternut squash, gourd, zucchini. (Native to the Americas)
- Cucumis: Melons and cucumber. (Native to Africa)
- Citrullus: Watermelon. (Native to south-west Africa)

Heath Family (Ericaceae)

A large eudicot family found globally, especially in northern temperate regions.
Mostly woody shrubs thriving in acidic soils.
Reliant on mycorrhizal fungal association.
Have evergreen leaves, thick, and waxy.
Many ornamental shrubs belong to this family, including rhododendrons, heathers, and heaths.
The genus Vaccinium: Contains several edible berries:
- Blueberry (V. corymbosum)
- Bilberry (V. myrtillus)
- Lingonberry/partridgeberry (V. vitis-idaea)
- Cranberry (V. macrocarpon)

Citrus Family (Rutaceae)

A eudicot family mostly restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.
Few members tolerate frost.
Showy and fragrant insect-pollinated flowers.
Economically important species belong to the genus Citrus.
All produce a modified berry known as hesperidium.
Citrus fruits include:
- Lemon (C. limon)
- Lime (C. aurantiifolia)
- Orange (C. sinensis)
- Mandarin/Tangerine orange (C. reticulata)
- Grapefruit (C. paradisi)
- Pomelo/Shaddock (C. maxima)
- Kumquat (Fortunella margarita)
- Seville/Sour orange (C. aurantium)
- Makrut lime (C. hystrix)
- Citrus fruits produce aromatic oils for cosmetics, perfumes, and food additives.
- Vital source of Vitamin C (prevents scurvy).

Soapberry Family (Sapindaceae)

A eudicot family containing Asiatic fruits:
- Longan (Dimocarpus longan)
- Litchi/Lychee (Litchi chinensis)
- Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum)
Includes akee (Blighia sapida) native to West Africa, and grows widely in Jamaica and other Caribbean countries.
- Jamaica's national dish "akkee and saltfish" is made with akee, salted cod, onions, tomatoes, and herbs.
- Most of the akee fruit is poisonous, except for the fleshy arils surrounding the seeds, if the fruit is fresh and naturally opened.
- Consuming immature or overripe arils can cause "Jamaican vomiting sickness" due to severe vomiting and hypoglycemia.
Includes guarana (Paullinia cupana) from the Amazonian region of South America.
Examples:
- Passion fruit: Native to Brazil.
- Guava: Common in Central America and Asia.
- Cherimoya: Native to Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia.
- Starfruit: Native to Southeast Asia.
- Dragonfruit: Native to Southern Mexico.
- Mangosteen: Native to Island Southeast Asia.

Comercially Important Monocot Fruit

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)
- Native to the Americas.
- Produces a large multiple fruit from the fusion of 100-200 individual fruits, each derived from a single flower.
- Grown commercially for dessert fruit and protein-degrading enzyme production.
- Leaves are used to manufacture mats and sacks.
Banana (Musa acuminata)
- Native to Eastern Asia and northern Australia.
- Cultivated in sweet dessert and starchy plantain forms.
- Sterile triploid plants, propagated from stem cuttings and produce seedless fruits.
- Female flowers form large inflorescences, allowing bunch harvesting.
- Harvested unripe, transported in cool temperatures, and ripened with ethylene gas.
- Popularized in North America by the United Fruit Company.
- Vulnerable to black sigatoka fungus which can reduce yield by 50%.
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
- Indigenous to the Near East.
- Date fruit is rich in vitamins and contains 75% carbohydrates and 25% protein.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
- Native to South Pacific Islands.
- Produces one of the largest seeds in the world.
- Hard endosperm (coconut "meat" or copra) was a vital energy source for islanders.
- Copra used to produce coconut oil, used in chocolate, candies, and as a food flavoring.
- Liquid portion (coconut milk) is also endosperm tissue.

Legumes or Pulses

Legumes are part of the Fabaceae family, which includes both herbaceous plants and woody trees.
Legumes are known for their single-chambered pods, called legumes, with seeds attached along one edge.
Legumes are a high-protein source, containing up to 25-30% protein, making them a vital food source, especially in areas where meat is scarce.
Legumes are crucial for vegetarians and those who avoid meat, as they contain all essential amino acids.
Legumes are also essential for animal feed, with plants like clover, sweet clover, and alfalfa being notable forage plants.
Legumes form a mutualistic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria (genus Rhizobium) found in their root nodules, converting atmospheric nitrogen into usable nitrate for the plants.
This relationship benefits both the legumes and the bacteria, as the plants provide sugars to the bacteria through photosynthesis and gain essential nitrogen in return.

Economically Important Legumes

Common or Kidney Bean is native to Central and South America and can be consumed fresh or dried, with dried beans containing about 20% protein.
Pea is an ancient legume crop, cultivated for at least 7,000 years, native to the Mediterranean, Middle East, and northeastern Africa. Many pea cultivars have been developed, with seeds being dried (about 25% protein) or eaten fresh.
Soybean is native to East Asia and was first cultivated over 3,000 years ago in northeast China. It's the world's most important legume crop, with over 100 million tons produced annually. Soybeans possess high protein content (35-40% dry weight) and are used for various applications like fresh and dried beans, bean sprouts, edible and industrial oils, and protein products.
Peanut or Groundnut is native to Central and South America, domesticated over 3,500 years ago, and harvested in large quantities globally. Peanuts are unique as the flower stalk elongates after pollination, pushing the maturing fruit into the soil. They are commonly used for edible and industrial oils, animal feed, and as a snack.
Tropical Pulses are a significant seed protein source in various regions. Some examples include:
- Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus)
- Broad bean (Vicia faba)
- Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
- Black gram or urd (Vigna mungo)
- Mung bean or green gram (V. radiata)
- Black-eyed bean (V. unguiculata)
- Asparagus or yard-long bean (V. unguiculata var. sesquipedalis)
- Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
- Lentil (Lens culinaris)
Carob is a subtropical tree native to the Arabian Peninsula, with pods containing seeds rich in protein and sugar. The pods are used for edible "sweetmeat" and processed into paste as a chocolate substitute. The gum from the seeds is used as a stabilizer in various food products.
Tamarind is a large tree native to India, with large pods. The sweet meat from the seeds is used in tropical cuisines.
Fenugreek is native to the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia and has been used medicinally and as a food source for centuries. The seeds are used as a spice in curry dishes, fresh leaves as a vegetable, and dried leaves as an aromatic spice.
Liquorice is native to the Mediterranean region and central Asia and has been cultivated for centuries as a flavouring and sweetener.

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This quiz explores the botanical characteristics, history, and uses of Eragrostis tef, a key food plant originating from Ethiopia. Learn about its role in traditional cuisine, particularly its use in making injera, as well as its importance as animal feed. Test your knowledge on this unique and vital crop.