Epilepsy and Its Treatments
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Questions and Answers

What contributes to motor dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease?

  • Excess acetylcholine activity due to decreased dopamine (correct)
  • Overproduction of serotonin
  • Increased dopamine levels
  • Decreased acetylcholine levels leading to dopamine surplus

Which of the following is a hallmark feature of Alzheimer's Disease?

  • Formation of structures resembling neurogenesis
  • Accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques (correct)
  • Decreased levels of insulin in the brain
  • Improved synaptic function in the cortex

How do neurofibrillary tangles contribute to Alzheimer's Disease?

  • Disrupting transport systems within neurons (correct)
  • Forming connections between neurons
  • Stimulating neuronal regeneration
  • Enhancing synaptic transmission

What characterizes the primary mechanism of neuron degeneration in ALS?

<p>Progressive degeneration of motor neurons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does excitotoxicity lead to neuron death in ALS?

<p>By causing calcium overload due to excessive glutamate activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the sensation of spinning or dizziness in vertigo?

<p>Disturbances in the vestibular system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of cancer?

<p>Inappropriate and uncontrolled proliferation of host cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment method is curative for localized, non-metastasized tumors?

<p>Surgery (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism allows cancer cells to become less susceptible to chemotherapy drugs?

<p>Drug efflux pumps (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily targeted by chemotherapy drugs that interrupt DNA synthesis?

<p>S phase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of local anesthetics like lidocaine and bupivacaine?

<p>They are part of the amide group. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are cells in the G1 phase more susceptible to chemotherapy drugs?

<p>They are synthesizing RNA. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do vasoconstrictors like adrenaline have when added to local anesthetics?

<p>They prolong the duration of action. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key effect achieved by general anesthesia?

<p>Loss of consciousness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an undesirable property of an anesthetic?

<p>High systemic toxicity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what order does sensation typically return after local anesthesia wears off?

<p>Pain, temperature, touch, motor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of positive reinforcement in the context of addiction?

<p>It leads to pleasurable effects encouraging repeated use. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when a person develops tolerance to a drug?

<p>They need higher doses to achieve the same effect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are withdrawal symptoms primarily caused by?

<p>The body's attempt to restore balance after drug use stops. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of alcohol withdrawal?

<p>Enhanced concentration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What neurobiological changes occur with addiction?

<p>Alterations in brain pathways leading to compulsive behaviors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many criteria from the DSM-5 must be met for a diagnosis of substance use disorder?

<p>At least two (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates addiction from risky use?

<p>Addiction demonstrates compulsive behavior and loss of control. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT influence the risk of developing addiction?

<p>Color of the drug (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary approach to managing Type 2 diabetes?

<p>Lifestyle changes and medications (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Metformin primarily function in the management of Type 2 diabetes?

<p>Decreases glucose production by the liver (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following side effects is commonly associated with Metformin?

<p>Nausea and diarrhea (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When should Metformin be avoided?

<p>When using contrast dyes or in severe renal impairment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of sulphonylureas like Gliclazide?

<p>Stimulate the pancreas to produce more insulin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication is a risk for Type 1 diabetics if insulin administration does not match carbohydrate intake?

<p>Hypoglycemia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of diabetes is most commonly diagnosed in children and what is its primary cause?

<p>Type 1 diabetes due to autoimmune β-cell destruction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primary complications of unmanaged diabetes?

<p>Long-term damage to blood vessels, heart, kidneys, nerves, and eyes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the biopsychosocial model of addiction emphasize?

<p>An interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a recognized risk factor for addiction?

<p>Age of first drug use (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential risk of alcohol combined with opioids?

<p>Increased risk of misuse and overdose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are performance-enhancing drugs considered unethical in sports?

<p>They provide unfair advantages not based on skill (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which category includes substances not approved for human use?

<p>S0: Non-approved substances (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which interaction risk is associated with marijuana use?

<p>Increased bleeding risk with warfarin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What’s a primary reason athletes might choose to use performance-enhancing drugs?

<p>To win in competition due to pressures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of alcohol developing tolerance?

<p>Increased requirement for pain relief (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Registered CAM products in Australia?

<p>They require full evaluation, including efficacy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a limitation of TGA regulation for CAM products?

<p>Some homeopathic products are not covered. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What serious risk is associated with using St John's Wort?

<p>It can lead to serotonin syndrome when combined with SSRIs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it crucial for CAM users to inform their healthcare providers about their usage?

<p>To avoid interactions with prescription drugs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR)?

<p>A noxious response to a drug occurring at normal doses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major concern regarding the use of CAM for serious medical conditions like cancer?

<p>It can delay conventional therapies and harm patients. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What must CAM products adhere to for their labeling and advertising?

<p>They must meet Good Manufacturing Process standards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can cause herbal toxicity associated with CAM?

<p>Contaminants or undeclared toxic ingredients. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Akinesia

Difficulty initiating movements.

Tremors

Involuntary shaking, typically at rest.

Amyloid-beta Plaques

Accumulation of misfolded amyloid-beta proteins, disrupting neuron function.

Neurofibrillary Tangles

Tau protein tangles disrupting neuronal transport.

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ALS

Progressive degeneration of motor neurons.

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Excitotoxicity (ALS)

Excessive glutamate activity leading to neuron death.

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Vertigo

Disturbances in vestibular system, causing spinning/dizziness.

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Cancer

Uncontrolled cell growth.

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Bone Marrow Suppression

A condition where the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells is reduced.

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Chemotherapy Resistance

Cancer cells becoming less sensitive to chemotherapy drugs.

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Drug Efflux Pumps

Cellular mechanisms that remove chemotherapeutic drugs.

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Cell Cycle Phases

Stages of cell division (G1, S, G2, M, G0).

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Local Anesthetic

Drug that causes loss of sensation in a specific area.

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General Anesthetic

Drug causing loss of sensation and consciousness throughout the body.

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Sodium Channel Blockade

Mechanism of how local anesthetic drugs work, where nerve depolarization is stopped.

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Vasoconstrictors with Local Anesthetics

Used to keep the anesthetic in one place, make it last longer, and lower the body's exposure to it.

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Type 2 Diabetes Management

Primarily managed through lifestyle changes (diet, exercise) and medications like oral hypoglycemics.

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Metformin's Mechanism

Reduces glucose production in the liver, slows absorption, reduces appetite, and boosts insulin sensitivity.

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Metformin Side Effects

Common GI issues (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, reduced appetite); rare hypoglycemia unless combined with other drugs.

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Metformin Contraindications

Avoid in severe kidney problems, conditions at risk of lactic acidosis, and before procedures using contrast dyes.

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Type 1 vs Type 2 Insulin Dependency

Type 1 diabetics need insulin due to no insulin production; Type 2 may not need insulin initially but might as disease progresses.

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Type 1 Diabetes in Children

Autoimmune β-cell destruction often leads to Type 1 diabetes diagnosis in younger individuals.

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Antimicrobials

Drugs that prevent and reduce the multiplication of harmful bacteria, viruses, or fungi in the body.

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Antimicrobial Types

The three main types are antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals.

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Positive Reinforcement (Addiction)

Pleasurable effects (like dopamine release) from drug use, encouraging repeated use.

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Negative Reinforcement (Addiction)

Drug use relieving discomfort or pain, reinforcing behavior to avoid withdrawal/negative emotions.

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Tolerance (Addiction)

Repeated drug use reduces receptor system effectiveness, requiring higher doses for the same effect.

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Withdrawal Symptoms (Addiction)

Body's attempt to restore balance after drug use stops; caused by neurotransmitter/system dysregulation.

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Addiction vs. Risky Use

Addiction: compulsive use, loss of control, withdrawal; continued use despite consequences; Risky use: behavior that could lead to addiction, but without those criteria met.

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DSM-5 Substance Use Disorder Criteria

Diagnosis requires at least two symptoms of impaired control, social impairment, risky use, and physical indicators (tolerance/withdrawal).

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Factors Influencing Addiction Risk

Genetics, mental health, gender, age, social environment, education, drug availability, and type of drug.

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Neurobiological Changes in Addiction

Addiction changes brain pathways for compulsive behavior, loss of control, and tolerance; altering reward, decision-making, memory, and emotional regulation.

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Biopsychosocial model of addiction

Addiction arises from a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.

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Risk factors for addiction

Genetics, age of first drug use, social skills, mental disorders, environmental factors and drug type influence addiction.

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Alcohol's effect on pain & meds

Alcohol provides temporary pain relief but tolerance develops, leading to risky interactions, such as with acetaminophen or opioids.

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Marijuana's effect on pain & meds

Marijuana is used as a pain reliever, but it can interact with other medications like warfarin and hydrocortisone, posing drug interaction risks.

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Mixing alcohol with opioids

Alcohol intensifies opioid effects, increasing risk of misuse, overdose, and liver issues, especially when combined with other drugs like acetaminophen or aspirin.

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Performance-enhancing drug use by athletes

Athletes may use performance-enhancing drugs to gain an unfair advantage (boost performance), due to social pressure or a desire to win, gain fame, or recover from injuries quickly.

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Banned Performance Enhancing Drug Categories

Banned substances at all times (e.g., non-approved drugs, anabolic agents, peptide hormones, beta-2-agonists) pose dangers and unfair advantages due to potential health risks involved in their usage.

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In-competition banned substances

Certain types of performance-enhancing drugs, like anabolic agents, peptide hormones are banned in competition only, while some, such as B2-agonists may be used for asthma within limits.

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Listed CAM Products

Australian complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) products reviewed only for quality and safety, not efficacy.

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Registered CAM Products

Australian CAM products evaluated for quality, safety, and effectiveness (efficacy).

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CAM Advertising Limitations

CAM product advertising and labeling must adhere to specific guidelines, including manufacturing process standards to prevent contamination.

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TGA CAM Regulation Gaps

The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) doesn't regulate all CAM products, including some homeopathic, low-risk supplements, and international online sales.

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CAM and Serious Illness

CAM therapies may help limit disease progression or relieve symptoms for serious conditions like cancer, but evidence for many treatments is lacking.

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Herbal CAM Toxicity

Some herbal CAMs contain harmful compounds like kava, aristolochic acid leading to toxic effects like liver or kidney damage due to contaminants, fillers, or undeclared toxic ingredients.

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Patient Disclosure of CAM Use

Patients must inform their healthcare providers about CAM use because CAM products can interact with drugs. Over 50% of CAM users do not disclose this, posing health risks.

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Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR)

Any negative reaction to a drug at normal doses, occurring during preventative, diagnostic, or treatment use to improve health (WHO, 1984).

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Study Notes

Epilepsy

  • Epilepsy is recurrent episodes of abnormal excessive depolarization of cerebral neurons.
  • Potential causes include neurological disease, brain damage, heredity, metabolic disorders, sudden alcohol withdrawal, and intoxication with local anesthetics.
  • Major categories of epileptic seizures are partial (simple and complex) and generalized (absence and tonic-clonic).
  • Status epilepticus is a life-threatening condition involving prolonged, uncontrollable seizures.
  • EEG (electroencephalogram) records brain electrical activity to diagnose and localize seizure activity.

Epilepsy Treatment Medications

  • Phenytoin blocks voltage-dependent sodium channels, preventing repetitive neuronal discharges. Common side effects include anemia, cognitive impairment, developmental abnormalities in fetuses, and increased risk of heart disease.
  • Carbamazepine, similar to phenytoin, blocks voltage-dependent sodium channels. Side effects include dizziness, blurred vision, and risk of spina bifida in fetuses or pregnancy.
  • Vigabatrin inhibits GABA transaminase, increasing GABA levels for seizure control. Side effect is sedation.
  • Other medications include Tiagabine, which inhibits GABA reuptake, and Valproate, which weakly inhibits GABA transaminase and affects sodium channels.

Parkinson's Disease

  • Parkinson's Disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease resulting in the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
  • Dopamine precursor, Levodopa, crosses the blood-brain barrier and converts to dopamine to restore dopaminergic activity.
  • Side effects of Levodopa include nausea, anxiety, confusion, hypotension, and involuntary movements.

Alzheimer's Disease

  • Pathological hallmarks include amyloid plaques, tau protein tangles, synaptic and neuronal loss.
  • Acetylcholine esterase inhibitors like donepezil reduce acetylcholine breakdown to mitigate memory loss.
  • Memantine is an NMDA receptor antagonist that reduces neuronal excitotoxicity.

Motor Neuron Disease (MND)

  • Riluzole inhibits glutamate neurotransmission, extending survival.

Vertigo

  • Symptoms include sensation of spinning or dizziness and are treated with medications like prochlorperazine and betahistine.

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Description

This quiz covers key aspects of epilepsy, including causes, types of seizures, and the life-threatening status epilepticus. It also addresses treatment medications like phenytoin and carbamazepine, highlighting their mechanisms and side effects.

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