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Questions and Answers
What factor is necessary for establishing dietary causation of diabetes mellitus?
What factor is necessary for establishing dietary causation of diabetes mellitus?
The concept of specificity asserts that an exposure can lead to multiple outcomes.
The concept of specificity asserts that an exposure can lead to multiple outcomes.
False
What is an example of a relationship that should not contradict established medical science?
What is an example of a relationship that should not contradict established medical science?
Smoking and hypertension.
The ______ relationship indicates that increasing the dose of an exposure will affect the outcome.
The ______ relationship indicates that increasing the dose of an exposure will affect the outcome.
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Match the following criteria for establishing causation with their descriptions:
Match the following criteria for establishing causation with their descriptions:
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What defines internal validity in a study?
What defines internal validity in a study?
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Causal inference refers to the process of identifying noncausal relationships between variables.
Causal inference refers to the process of identifying noncausal relationships between variables.
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Name one source of error that can occur in epidemiologic studies.
Name one source of error that can occur in epidemiologic studies.
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The goal of epidemiologic studies is to estimate the value of the parameter with little __________.
The goal of epidemiologic studies is to estimate the value of the parameter with little __________.
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Match the following types of validity with their descriptions:
Match the following types of validity with their descriptions:
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What is the primary aim of randomization in the design stage of a study?
What is the primary aim of randomization in the design stage of a study?
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Stratified analysis ensures that confounders are unevenly distributed within each stratum.
Stratified analysis ensures that confounders are unevenly distributed within each stratum.
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List one of Bradford Hill's criteria for causal inference.
List one of Bradford Hill's criteria for causal inference.
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A common method to restrict confounding factors in a study is called __________.
A common method to restrict confounding factors in a study is called __________.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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What does the term 'temporality' refer to in causal inference?
What does the term 'temporality' refer to in causal inference?
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In causation studies, consistency of findings across different populations and designs supports a causal inference.
In causation studies, consistency of findings across different populations and designs supports a causal inference.
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What does the presence of a higher risk ratio suggest regarding the association being studied?
What does the presence of a higher risk ratio suggest regarding the association being studied?
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What is one of the main results of confounding in research?
What is one of the main results of confounding in research?
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A causal association means that changes in one event are not followed by changes in another event.
A causal association means that changes in one event are not followed by changes in another event.
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What is selection bias?
What is selection bias?
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A ______ association occurs when the relationship of both factor and disease involves a third variable.
A ______ association occurs when the relationship of both factor and disease involves a third variable.
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Match the type of bias with its description:
Match the type of bias with its description:
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Which of the following best describes confounding?
Which of the following best describes confounding?
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Information bias can occur due to inaccurate information collected from subjects.
Information bias can occur due to inaccurate information collected from subjects.
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What are the two forms of misclassification?
What are the two forms of misclassification?
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The presence of a ______ associated with exposure and disease can lead to over or underestimation of associations.
The presence of a ______ associated with exposure and disease can lead to over or underestimation of associations.
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Which of the following is NOT a source of information bias?
Which of the following is NOT a source of information bias?
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Study Notes
Statistical Association
- Characterizes the relationship between variables (positive or negative)
- Uses statistical methods to describe the association
Causal Inference
- Assigns causal relationships to observed associations
- Aims to understand if one variable causes a change in another
Internal Validity
- Accuracy of the study's effect estimate
- Absence of systematic errors
External Validity
- Generalizability to a larger population
- Absence of random errors
Goal of Epidemiologic Studies
- Accurate estimation of population parameters
- Minimizing errors (random and systematic)
Types of Errors
- Random errors: Sampling errors (differences between population and sample values)
- Systematic errors (biases and confounding): Distort association estimates (over or under-estimate the association)
Association vs. Cause
- Association: Identifiable relationship between exposure and outcome
- Cause: Mechanisms connecting exposure to outcome
Causal vs. Non-causal
- Causal: Alteration in one event leads to a change in another
- Non-causal: Association resulting from a relationship with a third variable
Bias
- Selection Bias: Non-representative sample (e.g., some people more likely to be chosen/be subjects)
-
Information Bias: Inaccurate information collected (e.g., misclassification)
- Differential (non-random): Non-equal misclassification between groups
- Non-differential (random): Similar misclassification in all groups
Confounding
- Mixture of exposure effect with that of a third factor (confounder)
- Confounder is associated with the exposure and a risk factor for the outcome.
Controlling Confounding
- Design stage: Randomization, Restriction, Matching
- Analysis stage: Stratified analysis, Multivariate analysis
Bradford Hill's Criteria for Causal Inference
- Strength of Association: Higher risk ratio, higher likelihood of causation
- Temporality: Exposure precedes the outcome
- Consistency: Consistent findings across different studies, designs, and populations
- Coherence: Consistency with existing knowledge about the natural history
- Specificity: Exposure leads to a single outcome
- Dose-Response Relation: Increase in exposure strength corresponds to increase in outcome
- Experimental Evidence: Experimental data supporting the relationship (if applicable)
- Analogy: Similar relationships observed in other situations
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts in epidemiology, including statistical association, causal inference, and validity. This quiz will assess your understanding of how relationships between variables are characterized and the importance of minimizing errors in studies.
