Podcast
Questions and Answers
Match the characteristics of each circle in Kachru's Circles model with their corresponding labels:
Match the characteristics of each circle in Kachru's Circles model with their corresponding labels:
Native Language = Inner Circle Second Language = Outer Circle Foreign Language = Expanding Circle Official Language = Outer Circle
Match the countries with the corresponding circle in Kachru's Circles model:
Match the countries with the corresponding circle in Kachru's Circles model:
USA = Inner Circle India = Outer Circle China = Expanding Circle UK = Inner Circle
Match the features of the Inner Circle with the correct descriptions:
Match the features of the Inner Circle with the correct descriptions:
Native Accent = Comes 'for free' Little enthusiasm to learn other languages = Used for all administrative and social purposes English dominates communication = Used for all administrative and social purposes English is the native language = Native Language, or mother tongue, of most people
Match the number of English speakers with the corresponding circle in Kachru's Circles model:
Match the number of English speakers with the corresponding circle in Kachru's Circles model:
Match the characteristics of the Outer Circle with the correct descriptions:
Match the characteristics of the Outer Circle with the correct descriptions:
Match the features of the Expanding Circle with the correct descriptions:
Match the features of the Expanding Circle with the correct descriptions:
Match the following regions with their corresponding English language circle:
Match the following regions with their corresponding English language circle:
Match the following features with their corresponding language style:
Match the following features with their corresponding language style:
Match the following countries with their corresponding English language circle:
Match the following countries with their corresponding English language circle:
Match the following English language norms with their corresponding circle:
Match the following English language norms with their corresponding circle:
Match the following language styles with their corresponding features:
Match the following language styles with their corresponding features:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the following authors with their corresponding book titles:
Match the following authors with their corresponding book titles:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding roles:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding roles:
Match the following language features with their corresponding language circles:
Match the following language features with their corresponding language circles:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding regions:
Match the following English language circles with their corresponding regions:
Match the following theories with their respective contributors:
Match the following theories with their respective contributors:
Match the following maxims of polite speech with their respective categories:
Match the following maxims of polite speech with their respective categories:
Match the following theories of language and thought with their key ideas:
Match the following theories of language and thought with their key ideas:
Match the following conversational strategies with their effects:
Match the following conversational strategies with their effects:
Match the following researchers with their contributions:
Match the following researchers with their contributions:
Match the following language acquisition theories with their key proponents:
Match the following language acquisition theories with their key proponents:
Match the following language aspects with their descriptions:
Match the following language aspects with their descriptions:
Match the following conversational success factors with their importance:
Match the following conversational success factors with their importance:
Match the following language and thought theories with their central ideas:
Match the following language and thought theories with their central ideas:
Match the following conversational strategies with their goals:
Match the following conversational strategies with their goals:
Match the following linguists with their respective contributions to the field of linguistics:
Match the following linguists with their respective contributions to the field of linguistics:
Match the following concepts with their definitions:
Match the following concepts with their definitions:
Match the following maxims with their descriptions:
Match the following maxims with their descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their respective authors:
Match the following concepts with their respective authors:
Match the following politeness strategies with their descriptions:
Match the following politeness strategies with their descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their effects on conversation:
Match the following concepts with their effects on conversation:
Match the following authors with their respective years of publication:
Match the following authors with their respective years of publication:
Match the following concepts with their consequences:
Match the following concepts with their consequences:
Match the following politeness strategies with their examples:
Match the following politeness strategies with their examples:
Match the following concepts with their areas of focus:
Match the following concepts with their areas of focus:
Match the following types of power with their corresponding definitions:
Match the following types of power with their corresponding definitions:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding authors:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding authors:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the following concepts with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the following examples with their corresponding concepts:
Match the following examples with their corresponding concepts:
Match the following descriptions with their corresponding concepts:
Match the following descriptions with their corresponding concepts:
Match the philosophers with their corresponding theories about the mind:
Match the philosophers with their corresponding theories about the mind:
Match the theories with their corresponding views on language and thought:
Match the theories with their corresponding views on language and thought:
Match the examples with their corresponding concepts:
Match the examples with their corresponding concepts:
Match the linguists with their corresponding theories or contributions:
Match the linguists with their corresponding theories or contributions:
Match the authors with their corresponding works:
Match the authors with their corresponding works:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the linguistic theories with their descriptions:
Match the linguistic theories with their descriptions:
Match the researchers with their contributions to linguistics:
Match the researchers with their contributions to linguistics:
Match the theories with their corresponding critics:
Match the theories with their corresponding critics:
Match the philosophers with their corresponding time periods:
Match the philosophers with their corresponding time periods:
Match the characteristics with the corresponding conversational style:
Match the characteristics with the corresponding conversational style:
Match the theories with their descriptions:
Match the theories with their descriptions:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the languages with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the languages with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the concepts with their corresponding linguists:
Match the concepts with their corresponding linguists:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the concepts with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the conversational styles with their characteristics:
Match the conversational styles with their characteristics:
Match the researchers with their areas of study:
Match the researchers with their areas of study:
Match the theories with their implications:
Match the theories with their implications:
Match the linguistics concepts with their descriptions:
Match the linguistics concepts with their descriptions:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the researchers with their corresponding theories:
Match the researchers with their corresponding theories:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding examples:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding examples:
Match the characteristics of the powerful speakers with their corresponding traits:
Match the characteristics of the powerful speakers with their corresponding traits:
Match the characteristics of powerless speakers with their corresponding traits:
Match the characteristics of powerless speakers with their corresponding traits:
Match the types of power with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the types of power with their corresponding descriptions:
Match the language theories with their primary focus:
Match the language theories with their primary focus:
Match the language styles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the language styles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the language theories with their authors:
Match the language theories with their authors:
Match the researchers with their corresponding studies:
Match the researchers with their corresponding studies:
Match the theories with their views on women's language use:
Match the theories with their views on women's language use:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding examples:
Match the characteristics of women's language with their corresponding examples:
Match the language styles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the language styles with their corresponding characteristics:
Match the theories with their views on men's language use:
Match the theories with their views on men's language use:
Match the theories with their views on gender differences:
Match the theories with their views on gender differences:
Match the theories with their views on power dynamics:
Match the theories with their views on power dynamics:
Match the theories with their views on language and society:
Match the theories with their views on language and society:
Match the theories with their views on women's language acquisition:
Match the theories with their views on women's language acquisition:
Match the theories with their views on language and gender:
Match the theories with their views on language and gender:
Match the theories with their views on language use and gender roles:
Match the theories with their views on language use and gender roles:
Kachru's model describes the circumstances in which English is spoken in the ______ world.
Kachru's model describes the circumstances in which English is spoken in the ______ world.
Kachru's circles model consists of three ______ of differing sizes.
Kachru's circles model consists of three ______ of differing sizes.
The Inner Circle is where English is the native language, or ______ tongue, of most people.
The Inner Circle is where English is the native language, or ______ tongue, of most people.
The total number of English speakers in the Inner Circle regions is approximately ______ million.
The total number of English speakers in the Inner Circle regions is approximately ______ million.
In the Inner Circle, English dominates communication and is used for all ______ and social purposes.
In the Inner Circle, English dominates communication and is used for all ______ and social purposes.
In the Outer Circle, English is a ______ language and is used in many public domains.
In the Outer Circle, English is a ______ language and is used in many public domains.
The Inner Circle represents the traditional bases of English in regions where it is now used as a ______ language.
The Inner Circle represents the traditional bases of English in regions where it is now used as a ______ language.
English is regarded as a ______ language in the Outer Circle regions.
English is regarded as a ______ language in the Outer Circle regions.
In the Outer Circle, English serves as a useful ______ language between ethnic and language groups.
In the Outer Circle, English serves as a useful ______ language between ethnic and language groups.
The Expanding Circle includes countries where English plays no ______ or governmental role.
The Expanding Circle includes countries where English plays no ______ or governmental role.
In the Expanding Circle, learners of English adopt some of its language features and incorporate their ______ language.
In the Expanding Circle, learners of English adopt some of its language features and incorporate their ______ language.
The language style of 'Japlish' is a mix of Japanese and ______.
The language style of 'Japlish' is a mix of Japanese and ______.
In her book Global English, Jennifer Jenkins believes that there are likely to be more ______ speakers of English than of any other variety.
In her book Global English, Jennifer Jenkins believes that there are likely to be more ______ speakers of English than of any other variety.
Kachru's circle model is interesting, both historically and ______, and also central to the standards of English.
Kachru's circle model is interesting, both historically and ______, and also central to the standards of English.
New Englishes is a term first coined by ______ to describe varieties of English which have developed in different countries.
New Englishes is a term first coined by ______ to describe varieties of English which have developed in different countries.
According to Robert Philipson, Language Imperialism is the dominance of one language over ______.
According to Robert Philipson, Language Imperialism is the dominance of one language over ______.
The most generally held view is that the Inner Circle is ______-providing, which means that English language norms are developed in these countries.
The most generally held view is that the Inner Circle is ______-providing, which means that English language norms are developed in these countries.
The cooperative principle states that people wish to express ______ information in a clear manner.
The cooperative principle states that people wish to express ______ information in a clear manner.
The Expanding Circle is ______-dependent because it relies on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
The Expanding Circle is ______-dependent because it relies on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
Paul Grice established the guideline principles of conversation known as ______.
Paul Grice established the guideline principles of conversation known as ______.
The theory of face was initiated by ______ in 1967 and developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1987.
The theory of face was initiated by ______ in 1967 and developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1987.
Positive politeness may be used to make the listener feel good about ______.
Positive politeness may be used to make the listener feel good about ______.
The concept of New Englishes refers to varieties of English which have developed in different countries through ______ administration, education and media.
The concept of New Englishes refers to varieties of English which have developed in different countries through ______ administration, education and media.
Language Imperialism causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's ______ institutions.
Language Imperialism causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's ______ institutions.
The decline and death of a language also results in the ______ of its culture and those who speak it as their mother tongue.
The decline and death of a language also results in the ______ of its culture and those who speak it as their mother tongue.
Conversational maxims are broken in almost every ______.
Conversational maxims are broken in almost every ______.
The ______________ Theory suggests that studies about women, including their language, should be practised from the point of view of women.
The ______________ Theory suggests that studies about women, including their language, should be practised from the point of view of women.
The Muted Group Theory was founded by ______________ and furthered by Cheris Kramarae.
The Muted Group Theory was founded by ______________ and furthered by Cheris Kramarae.
The Dominance Approach proposes that men are naturally more ______________ than women.
The Dominance Approach proposes that men are naturally more ______________ than women.
According to the Difference Approach, men and women have fundamentally different modes of ______________.
According to the Difference Approach, men and women have fundamentally different modes of ______________.
Otto Jespersen theorised that women have a smaller ______________ than men.
Otto Jespersen theorised that women have a smaller ______________ than men.
Robin Lakoff argued that language is fundamental to ______________ inequality.
Robin Lakoff argued that language is fundamental to ______________ inequality.
Standpoint Theory suggests that women’s lives and experiences are significantly different from those of ______________.
Standpoint Theory suggests that women’s lives and experiences are significantly different from those of ______________.
The Dominance Approach states that women act in a less ______________ way around men.
The Dominance Approach states that women act in a less ______________ way around men.
According to the Deficit Approach, women ‘shrank from coarse and gross ______________’.
According to the Deficit Approach, women ‘shrank from coarse and gross ______________’.
Otto Jespersen believed that men are responsible for introducing new ______________ into the language.
Otto Jespersen believed that men are responsible for introducing new ______________ into the language.
Women tend to speak more____________________ than men.
Women tend to speak more____________________ than men.
Women use a greater range of __________________ and 'speak in italics'.
Women use a greater range of __________________ and 'speak in italics'.
Women often use question __________________ in declarative statements.
Women often use question __________________ in declarative statements.
Women tend to ______________ more than men.
Women tend to ______________ more than men.
Women use more words for __________________ than men.
Women use more words for __________________ than men.
Women use more __________________ adjectives than men.
Women use more __________________ adjectives than men.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that language differences are __________________-specific.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that language differences are __________________-specific.
According to O'Barr and Atkins, the women who used the lowest frequency of 'women's language' traits had an unusually high __________________.
According to O'Barr and Atkins, the women who used the lowest frequency of 'women's language' traits had an unusually high __________________.
Wareing's theory is about __________________ and Power.
Wareing's theory is about __________________ and Power.
There are three types of power, including __________________ power.
There are three types of power, including __________________ power.
Power behind ______ refers to how the current situation of speakers affect their power asymmetry or difference.
Power behind ______ refers to how the current situation of speakers affect their power asymmetry or difference.
Power in ______ reflects the power relationships between speakers, for example, how one person may use ‘sir’, while the other doesn’t.
Power in ______ reflects the power relationships between speakers, for example, how one person may use ‘sir’, while the other doesn’t.
______ communities are professional communities that have a set of values and shares specialist knowledge, people acquire languages features of the group.
______ communities are professional communities that have a set of values and shares specialist knowledge, people acquire languages features of the group.
Norman Fairclough focussed on ______ behind Discourse and Power in Discourse.
Norman Fairclough focussed on ______ behind Discourse and Power in Discourse.
A ______ community will use a specialist lexis as they work in the same field.
A ______ community will use a specialist lexis as they work in the same field.
The term “______ communities” was made to emphasise the importance of language in their constitution.
The term “______ communities” was made to emphasise the importance of language in their constitution.
Traditionally, innatism refers to the philosophy of Plato who believed that ideas were in the mind at ______ and given by a supreme being.
Traditionally, innatism refers to the philosophy of Plato who believed that ideas were in the mind at ______ and given by a supreme being.
Noam Chomsky has been the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language which then interacts with an individual’s childhood experiences within a society to produce both language and a sense of ______.
Noam Chomsky has been the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language which then interacts with an individual’s childhood experiences within a society to produce both language and a sense of ______.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis supported the view that the words and grammar of a language directly shape the ______ of its speakers.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis supported the view that the words and grammar of a language directly shape the ______ of its speakers.
A well-known example is that English has one word for ‘snow’, whereas the Inuit tribes of the Arctic have three words for its different ______.
A well-known example is that English has one word for ‘snow’, whereas the Inuit tribes of the Arctic have three words for its different ______.
The opposite of linguistic determinism is the idea that the language which is used only reflects the ______ of its speakers, so language influences people’s views of their world but does not determine it.
The opposite of linguistic determinism is the idea that the language which is used only reflects the ______ of its speakers, so language influences people’s views of their world but does not determine it.
Whorf gave examples of language differences relating to concepts of time, space and ______.
Whorf gave examples of language differences relating to concepts of time, space and ______.
The Boas-Jakobson principle states that, in theory, every ______ can be expressed in every language but that languages differ in the types of information they require speakers to mention when they use the language.
The Boas-Jakobson principle states that, in theory, every ______ can be expressed in every language but that languages differ in the types of information they require speakers to mention when they use the language.
Guy Deutcher explains language ideas in his book Through the Looking Glass: Why the world looks different in other ______.
Guy Deutcher explains language ideas in his book Through the Looking Glass: Why the world looks different in other ______.
The author George Orwell demonstrated in his novel 1984, written in 1948, that totalitarian systems might use language to restrict ______.
The author George Orwell demonstrated in his novel 1984, written in 1948, that totalitarian systems might use language to restrict ______.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was widely discussed in the ______.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was widely discussed in the ______.
The fictional society described in the novel is very tightly controlled and is reinforced by the official language of _______________.
The fictional society described in the novel is very tightly controlled and is reinforced by the official language of _______________.
According to the Boas-Jakobson Principle, every thought can be expressed in every language, albeit with differing required bits of _______________.
According to the Boas-Jakobson Principle, every thought can be expressed in every language, albeit with differing required bits of _______________.
Disagreements are an inevitable part of ______ and the management of differences of opinion is closely related to face-saving strategies.
Disagreements are an inevitable part of ______ and the management of differences of opinion is closely related to face-saving strategies.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human _______________ and that all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human _______________ and that all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
The adversative conjunction ‘but’ qualifies or changes what has just been said in some way, while ‘______’ and ‘not exactly’ operate in the same way.
The adversative conjunction ‘but’ qualifies or changes what has just been said in some way, while ‘______’ and ‘not exactly’ operate in the same way.
Communication Accommodation Theory argues that individuals change their _______________, vocal patterns and gestures to accommodate others, during interactions.
Communication Accommodation Theory argues that individuals change their _______________, vocal patterns and gestures to accommodate others, during interactions.
An important feature in any conversation is the relative ______ and influence of the participants.
An important feature in any conversation is the relative ______ and influence of the participants.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles showed that men's conversation tended to be about the giving and receiving of _______________ in cultures where men wish to be seen to act independently.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles showed that men's conversation tended to be about the giving and receiving of _______________ in cultures where men wish to be seen to act independently.
Brown & Levinson contributed the ______ and Negative Politeness aspects of Erving’s Theory.
Brown & Levinson contributed the ______ and Negative Politeness aspects of Erving’s Theory.
Tannen found that women's conversation was more to do with building and reinforcing _______________ relationships and all the negotiating strategies which go with this.
Tannen found that women's conversation was more to do with building and reinforcing _______________ relationships and all the negotiating strategies which go with this.
Every person uses language in a new way each time they speak, yet most linguists agree that the ______ of a society, including its lifestyle, traditions and innovations, shape the way we think and so, to some extent, these influences shape the way we talk.
Every person uses language in a new way each time they speak, yet most linguists agree that the ______ of a society, including its lifestyle, traditions and innovations, shape the way we think and so, to some extent, these influences shape the way we talk.
Men's conversations are often _______________ with no strategies to avoid conflict, according to Tannen's research.
Men's conversations are often _______________ with no strategies to avoid conflict, according to Tannen's research.
The Genderlect Theory was developed by Deborah Tannen, a distinguished American academic in the field of _______________.
The Genderlect Theory was developed by Deborah Tannen, a distinguished American academic in the field of _______________.
According to ______ theory, the development of the mind, and also language, sprang directly from the child’s observation and imitation of those in the world around them.
According to ______ theory, the development of the mind, and also language, sprang directly from the child’s observation and imitation of those in the world around them.
John Watson’s research, in 1913, was developed by B.F. ______ whose book Behaviour of Organisms was published in 1938 and explored the ideas described here.
John Watson’s research, in 1913, was developed by B.F. ______ whose book Behaviour of Organisms was published in 1938 and explored the ideas described here.
The theory of universalism suggests that all humans share the same _______________ processes, such as memory and perception, which are reflected in every language.
The theory of universalism suggests that all humans share the same _______________ processes, such as memory and perception, which are reflected in every language.
Communication Accommodation Theory was proposed by _______________ in 1973.
Communication Accommodation Theory was proposed by _______________ in 1973.
The theory was advanced by John ______ who published a book in 1690 which argued that the mind at birth was a ‘clean slate’ on which all experiences developed.
The theory was advanced by John ______ who published a book in 1690 which argued that the mind at birth was a ‘clean slate’ on which all experiences developed.
This theory puts forward the idea that there is something special about the human ______ which enables it to master the complexities of language.
This theory puts forward the idea that there is something special about the human ______ which enables it to master the complexities of language.
Robin Lakoff provided three maxims for ______ speech: Don’t impose, Give options, and Make your receiver feel good.
Robin Lakoff provided three maxims for ______ speech: Don’t impose, Give options, and Make your receiver feel good.
What is the main purpose of Kachru's Circles model?
What is the main purpose of Kachru's Circles model?
What is the primary characteristic of the Inner Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the primary characteristic of the Inner Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the significance of the Outer Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the significance of the Outer Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the distinction between the Expanding Circle and the Inner Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the distinction between the Expanding Circle and the Inner Circle in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the approximate number of English speakers in the Inner Circle countries?
What is the approximate number of English speakers in the Inner Circle countries?
What is the purpose of the labels 'EFL', 'ESL', and 'Native Language' in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the purpose of the labels 'EFL', 'ESL', and 'Native Language' in Kachru's Circles model?
What is the primary function of English in the Outer Circle, according to Kachru's circle model?
What is the primary function of English in the Outer Circle, according to Kachru's circle model?
What is the term used to describe the language style that combines elements of Japanese and English?
What is the term used to describe the language style that combines elements of Japanese and English?
Which circle of Kachru's model is characterized by the widespread use of English for specific, limited purposes, such as business and the internet?
Which circle of Kachru's model is characterized by the widespread use of English for specific, limited purposes, such as business and the internet?
What is the name of the book written by Jennifer Jenkins, which discusses the growing variety of English language styles?
What is the name of the book written by Jennifer Jenkins, which discusses the growing variety of English language styles?
In Kachru's circle model, which circle is considered norm-providing?
In Kachru's circle model, which circle is considered norm-providing?
What is the characteristic of Chinglish, where actions in the past are described?
What is the characteristic of Chinglish, where actions in the past are described?
Which circle of Kachru's model includes countries where English plays a historical or governmental role, but is not the native tongue?
Which circle of Kachru's model includes countries where English plays a historical or governmental role, but is not the native tongue?
What is the term used to describe the mix of Chinese and English language features?
What is the term used to describe the mix of Chinese and English language features?
According to Kachru's circle model, which circle relies on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle?
According to Kachru's circle model, which circle relies on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle?
What is the primary criterion for distinguishing between the different circles in Kachru's model?
What is the primary criterion for distinguishing between the different circles in Kachru's model?
What is the term 'New Englishes' referring to, according to Platt, Weber and Ho?
What is the term 'New Englishes' referring to, according to Platt, Weber and Ho?
What is Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?
What is Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?
What is the cooperative principle in conversation, according to Paul Grice?
What is the cooperative principle in conversation, according to Paul Grice?
What are the four maxims of conversation, according to Paul Grice?
What are the four maxims of conversation, according to Paul Grice?
What is the concept of 'face' in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and furthered by Brown and Levinson?
What is the concept of 'face' in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and furthered by Brown and Levinson?
What is the purpose of positive politeness strategies in conversation, according to Brown and Levinson?
What is the purpose of positive politeness strategies in conversation, according to Brown and Levinson?
What is the difference between positive and negative politeness strategies in conversation?
What is the difference between positive and negative politeness strategies in conversation?
Why is the concept of 'face' important in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and Brown and Levinson?
Why is the concept of 'face' important in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and Brown and Levinson?
What is the significance of the maxims of conversation in the context of social media, according to Paul Grice?
What is the significance of the maxims of conversation in the context of social media, according to Paul Grice?
How do speakers use politeness strategies to manage face-threatening acts in conversation, according to Brown and Levinson?
How do speakers use politeness strategies to manage face-threatening acts in conversation, according to Brown and Levinson?
What is the main idea behind the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
What is the main idea behind the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
What is the opposite of linguistic determinism?
What is the opposite of linguistic determinism?
Who is the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language?
Who is the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language?
What is the term for the idea that the structure of a language affects the speaker's world?
What is the term for the idea that the structure of a language affects the speaker's world?
What is the criticism of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
What is the criticism of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
What is the Boas-Jakobson principle?
What is the Boas-Jakobson principle?
What is the concept of linguistic determinism?
What is the concept of linguistic determinism?
What is the example of the Inuit tribes' language and thought?
What is the example of the Inuit tribes' language and thought?
Who wrote the book 'Through the Looking Glass: Why the world looks different in other languages'?
Who wrote the book 'Through the Looking Glass: Why the world looks different in other languages'?
What is the concept of nativism?
What is the concept of nativism?
What is the significance of using 'yes, but' instead of 'no' in disagreements?
What is the significance of using 'yes, but' instead of 'no' in disagreements?
What is the main idea behind Brown and Levinson's contribution to Erving's Theory?
What is the main idea behind Brown and Levinson's contribution to Erving's Theory?
What is the main idea behind Robin Lakoff's Politeness Principle?
What is the main idea behind Robin Lakoff's Politeness Principle?
How does the culture of a society shape our language and thought?
How does the culture of a society shape our language and thought?
What is the main idea behind the Historical Background Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Historical Background Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Behaviourism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Behaviourism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Empiricism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Empiricism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Innatism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the main idea behind the Innatism Theory of language acquisition?
What is the significance of relative power and influence in conversation?
What is the significance of relative power and influence in conversation?
What is the importance of face-saving strategies in managing disagreements?
What is the importance of face-saving strategies in managing disagreements?
What is the primary way that power is exercised in discourse according to Norman Fairclough?
What is the primary way that power is exercised in discourse according to Norman Fairclough?
What is a discourse community according to Swales?
What is a discourse community according to Swales?
What is an example of how power affects discourse, according to Norman Fairclough?
What is an example of how power affects discourse, according to Norman Fairclough?
What is the term used to describe how language reflects power relationships between speakers?
What is the term used to describe how language reflects power relationships between speakers?
What is the term used to describe how the current situation of speakers affects their power and discourse?
What is the term used to describe how the current situation of speakers affects their power and discourse?
What are the social variables that contribute to power, according to the text?
What are the social variables that contribute to power, according to the text?
What is the main idea behind Standpoint Theory, and what criticism does it face?
What is the main idea behind Standpoint Theory, and what criticism does it face?
What is the main argument of the Dominance Approach in language studies?
What is the main argument of the Dominance Approach in language studies?
According to Jespersen's Deficit Approach, what are some characteristics of women's language use?
According to Jespersen's Deficit Approach, what are some characteristics of women's language use?
What is the Muted Group Theory, and who founded it?
What is the Muted Group Theory, and who founded it?
What is the main idea behind Lakoff's Dominance Theory, and what areas of language use does it focus on?
What is the main idea behind Lakoff's Dominance Theory, and what areas of language use does it focus on?
What is the main difference between the Dominance Approach and the Difference Approach in language studies?
What is the main difference between the Dominance Approach and the Difference Approach in language studies?
How does the Muted Group Theory relate to the study of language and power?
How does the Muted Group Theory relate to the study of language and power?
What is the main critique of Jespersen's Deficit Approach?
What is the main critique of Jespersen's Deficit Approach?
How does the Standpoint Theory relate to the study of women's language use?
How does the Standpoint Theory relate to the study of women's language use?
What is the main idea behind the Difference Approach in language studies?
What is the main idea behind the Difference Approach in language studies?
What is a distinct characteristic of women's speech according to Lakoff's theory?
What is a distinct characteristic of women's speech according to Lakoff's theory?
What is the main argument of O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?
What is the main argument of O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?
What does Wareing's theory of Language and Power propose?
What does Wareing's theory of Language and Power propose?
What is a characteristic of women's language according to Lakoff's theory?
What is a characteristic of women's language according to Lakoff's theory?
What is the significance of O'Barr and Atkins' study of courtroom cases?
What is the significance of O'Barr and Atkins' study of courtroom cases?
What is an example of a 'women's language' component according to Lakoff's theory?
What is an example of a 'women's language' component according to Lakoff's theory?
What is the main finding of O'Barr and Atkins' study?
What is the main finding of O'Barr and Atkins' study?
What is the significance of the phrase 'speak in italics' in Lakoff's theory?
What is the significance of the phrase 'speak in italics' in Lakoff's theory?
What is the relationship between power and language according to O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?
What is the relationship between power and language according to O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?
What is the significance of Lakoff's theory in the context of language and power?
What is the significance of Lakoff's theory in the context of language and power?
What is the primary goal of the Communication Accommodation Theory, as proposed by Howard Giles?
What is the primary goal of the Communication Accommodation Theory, as proposed by Howard Giles?
What is the key idea behind the Universalism theory of language and thought?
What is the key idea behind the Universalism theory of language and thought?
How does the official language of 'Newspeak' in the novel control the thoughts of its speakers?
How does the official language of 'Newspeak' in the novel control the thoughts of its speakers?
What is the main difference between the conversational styles of men and women, according to Deborah Tannen's research?
What is the main difference between the conversational styles of men and women, according to Deborah Tannen's research?
What is the Boas-Jakobson principle, and how does it relate to language and thought?
What is the Boas-Jakobson principle, and how does it relate to language and thought?
What is the primary focus of the Genderlect Theory, as proposed by Deborah Tannen?
What is the primary focus of the Genderlect Theory, as proposed by Deborah Tannen?
How does the concept of 'Newspeak' in the novel illustrate the idea that language controls thought?
How does the concept of 'Newspeak' in the novel illustrate the idea that language controls thought?
What is the main limitation of the Communication Accommodation Theory, according to critics?
What is the main limitation of the Communication Accommodation Theory, according to critics?
How does the Universalism theory of language and thought relate to the concept of cognitive processes?
How does the Universalism theory of language and thought relate to the concept of cognitive processes?
What is the key implication of the Genderlect Theory for our understanding of language and gender?
What is the key implication of the Genderlect Theory for our understanding of language and gender?
The Inner Circle consists of countries where English is the second language.
The Inner Circle consists of countries where English is the second language.
The Expanding Circle has approximately 500-1000 million English speakers.
The Expanding Circle has approximately 500-1000 million English speakers.
Kachru's Circles model consists of only two circles.
Kachru's Circles model consists of only two circles.
In the Outer Circle, English is used as a native language.
In the Outer Circle, English is used as a native language.
The Inner Circle has approximately 320-380 million English speakers.
The Inner Circle has approximately 320-380 million English speakers.
The Outer Circle has an estimated 500-1000 million English speakers.
The Outer Circle has an estimated 500-1000 million English speakers.
The Outer Circle represents countries where English is the primary language.
The Outer Circle represents countries where English is the primary language.
The Expanding Circle includes countries where English plays a historical or governmental role.
The Expanding Circle includes countries where English plays a historical or governmental role.
Chinglish is a mix of Chinese and English languages.
Chinglish is a mix of Chinese and English languages.
Standard British English is the only standard for English language norms.
Standard British English is the only standard for English language norms.
The Inner Circle is norm-developing.
The Inner Circle is norm-developing.
The Expanding Circle is norm-providing.
The Expanding Circle is norm-providing.
English is not used as a medium of international communication in the Expanding Circle.
English is not used as a medium of international communication in the Expanding Circle.
Kachru's Circles model is only historically relevant.
Kachru's Circles model is only historically relevant.
The Outer Circle is norm-dependent.
The Outer Circle is norm-dependent.
Jennifer Jenkins believes that there are likely to be more Chinese speakers of English than of any other variety.
Jennifer Jenkins believes that there are likely to be more Chinese speakers of English than of any other variety.
The term 'New Englishes' was first coined by Robert Philipson to describe varieties of English which have developed in different countries.
The term 'New Englishes' was first coined by Robert Philipson to describe varieties of English which have developed in different countries.
Language Imperialism is the process of language development through native language speakers.
Language Imperialism is the process of language development through native language speakers.
According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxims, it is essential to make your contribution to the conversation as short as possible.
According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxims, it is essential to make your contribution to the conversation as short as possible.
The cooperative principle in conversation implies that people wish to express irrelevant information in a clear manner.
The cooperative principle in conversation implies that people wish to express irrelevant information in a clear manner.
Conversational Face theory was initiated by Paul Grice in 1975.
Conversational Face theory was initiated by Paul Grice in 1975.
Negative politeness is used to threaten the listener's face.
Negative politeness is used to threaten the listener's face.
In New Englishes, English is the only medium for communication.
In New Englishes, English is the only medium for communication.
Robert Philipson's Language Imperialism theory explains that the dominance of one language leads to the enrichment of the dominated language's culture.
Robert Philipson's Language Imperialism theory explains that the dominance of one language leads to the enrichment of the dominated language's culture.
According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxims, one should always be brief and to the point in conversation.
According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxims, one should always be brief and to the point in conversation.
The rise of social media has led to a decrease in divergence from the maxims of conversation.
The rise of social media has led to a decrease in divergence from the maxims of conversation.
Conversational Face is a theory that explains the speaker's sense of his or her own linguistic image and worth.
Conversational Face is a theory that explains the speaker's sense of his or her own linguistic image and worth.
The word ‘no’ is used more often than ‘yes but’ in disagreements.
The word ‘no’ is used more often than ‘yes but’ in disagreements.
According to Brown & Levinson, politeness is only about being negative.
According to Brown & Levinson, politeness is only about being negative.
Robin Lakoff provided only one maxim for polite speech.
Robin Lakoff provided only one maxim for polite speech.
According to the Politeness Principle, the goal is to impose on others.
According to the Politeness Principle, the goal is to impose on others.
Descartes believed that language acquisition was a natural ability.
Descartes believed that language acquisition was a natural ability.
Behaviourism Theory suggests that language is learned through observation and imitation.
Behaviourism Theory suggests that language is learned through observation and imitation.
Empiricism theory suggests that our sense of self-identity comes from innate ideas.
Empiricism theory suggests that our sense of self-identity comes from innate ideas.
Innatism theory suggests that language is learned through experience.
Innatism theory suggests that language is learned through experience.
Cognitive Abilities Creating Language theory suggests that language is separate from cognitive skills.
Cognitive Abilities Creating Language theory suggests that language is separate from cognitive skills.
Conversational success is less likely to occur where strategies which take account of the relative status of each participant are employed.
Conversational success is less likely to occur where strategies which take account of the relative status of each participant are employed.
The blank slate or tabula rasa theory suggests that the mind is born with ideas.
The blank slate or tabula rasa theory suggests that the mind is born with ideas.
Noam Chomsky's theory of language acquisition is based on the idea of linguistic determinism.
Noam Chomsky's theory of language acquisition is based on the idea of linguistic determinism.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language determines the way we think.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language determines the way we think.
The Boas-Jakobson principle is a criticism of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
The Boas-Jakobson principle is a criticism of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
George Orwell's novel 1984 demonstrates the idea that language can be used to restrict thought in totalitarian systems.
George Orwell's novel 1984 demonstrates the idea that language can be used to restrict thought in totalitarian systems.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language influences people's views of their world, but does not determine it.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language influences people's views of their world, but does not determine it.
The Inuit tribes of the Arctic have three words for different properties of snow.
The Inuit tribes of the Arctic have three words for different properties of snow.
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf developed the theory of linguistic reflection.
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf developed the theory of linguistic reflection.
Plato and Descartes were innatists, believing that ideas were in the mind at birth and given by a supreme being.
Plato and Descartes were innatists, believing that ideas were in the mind at birth and given by a supreme being.
In the novel, the removal of the word ‘bad’ and its replacement with ‘ungood’ is a demonstration of the Boas-Jakobson Principle.
In the novel, the removal of the word ‘bad’ and its replacement with ‘ungood’ is a demonstration of the Boas-Jakobson Principle.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are different.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are different.
Guy Deutscher's book Through the Looking Glass explains the Boas-Jakobson principle.
Guy Deutscher's book Through the Looking Glass explains the Boas-Jakobson principle.
According to the Communication Accommodation Theory, individuals change their speech to accommodate others during interactions.
According to the Communication Accommodation Theory, individuals change their speech to accommodate others during interactions.
The Genderlect Theory suggests that men and women use similar conversational styles.
The Genderlect Theory suggests that men and women use similar conversational styles.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles found that men and women use similar strategies to avoid conflict.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles found that men and women use similar strategies to avoid conflict.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are similar because humans share the same cognitive processes.
The theory of universalism suggests that language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are similar because humans share the same cognitive processes.
Research studies supporting the similarity of language thought processes have centred on different societies' perception of music.
Research studies supporting the similarity of language thought processes have centred on different societies' perception of music.
The Boas-Jakobson Principle suggests that language controls thought.
The Boas-Jakobson Principle suggests that language controls thought.
The anthropologist Rik Pinxten developed the theory of universalism in the 1950s.
The anthropologist Rik Pinxten developed the theory of universalism in the 1950s.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles found that women tend to focus on giving and receiving information.
Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles found that women tend to focus on giving and receiving information.
Standpoint Theory suggests that men and women have the same type of knowledge.
Standpoint Theory suggests that men and women have the same type of knowledge.
The Muted Group Theory was founded by Harding and Wood.
The Muted Group Theory was founded by Harding and Wood.
According to the Dominance Approach, men and women use language for the same outcomes.
According to the Dominance Approach, men and women use language for the same outcomes.
Women speak more frequently than men in a conversation.
Women speak more frequently than men in a conversation.
The Difference Approach suggests that men and women have different lifestyles and use language for different outcomes.
The Difference Approach suggests that men and women have different lifestyles and use language for different outcomes.
Otto Jespersen believed that women have a larger vocabulary than men.
Otto Jespersen believed that women have a larger vocabulary than men.
Men use more hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation than women.
Men use more hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation than women.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that language differences are solely due to gender.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that language differences are solely due to gender.
Robin Lakoff argued that language is fundamental to gender inequality.
Robin Lakoff argued that language is fundamental to gender inequality.
Women use fewer intensifiers, such as 'very' and 'so', than men.
Women use fewer intensifiers, such as 'very' and 'so', than men.
Jespersen believed that women are more fluent in speaking than men.
Jespersen believed that women are more fluent in speaking than men.
Men apologize more than women in a conversation.
Men apologize more than women in a conversation.
Standpoint Theory suggests that men’s lives and experiences are significantly different from those of women.
Standpoint Theory suggests that men’s lives and experiences are significantly different from those of women.
Lakoff's theory states that language differences are due to power and authority, rather than gender.
Lakoff's theory states that language differences are due to power and authority, rather than gender.
The Dominance Approach suggests that women are naturally more dominant than men.
The Dominance Approach suggests that women are naturally more dominant than men.
Lakoff argued that there are certain features of women’s language that give the impression women are stronger and more certain than men.
Lakoff argued that there are certain features of women’s language that give the impression women are stronger and more certain than men.
Women use more euphemisms than men in a conversation.
Women use more euphemisms than men in a conversation.
Norman Fairclough introduced the concept of Discourse Communities.
Norman Fairclough introduced the concept of Discourse Communities.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that women who used the highest frequency of 'women's language' traits had a low social status.
O'Barr and Atkins' study found that women who used the highest frequency of 'women's language' traits had a low social status.
Power behind Discourse refers to how language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.
Power behind Discourse refers to how language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.
Men use more tag questions, such as 'aren't you?', than women.
Men use more tag questions, such as 'aren't you?', than women.
Wareing's theory of language and power states that there are only two types of power: personal and social.
Wareing's theory of language and power states that there are only two types of power: personal and social.
Discourse Communities are groups of people who share the same occupation but not necessarily share specialist knowledge.
Discourse Communities are groups of people who share the same occupation but not necessarily share specialist knowledge.
Age is no longer a significant social variable in modern society.
Age is no longer a significant social variable in modern society.
The term 'Discourse Communities' was coined to emphasize the importance of occupation in professional communities.
The term 'Discourse Communities' was coined to emphasize the importance of occupation in professional communities.
Power in Discourse refers to how speakers use language to manage topics and ask questions.
Power in Discourse refers to how speakers use language to manage topics and ask questions.
Flashcards are hidden until you start studying
Study Notes
Kachru's Circles
- Braj Kachru's model (1985) classifies the ways English is used throughout the world.
- The model consists of three circles:
- Inner Circle: English is the native language, or mother tongue, of most people in these countries (e.g. USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, English-speaking regions of Canada and South Africa).
- Outer Circle: English is regarded as a second language in these regions, where much of the administration is through the medium of English, mainly as a colonial legacy (e.g. India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Singapore, Kenya, and Afrikaans-speaking regions of South Africa).
- Expanding Circle: English plays no historical or governmental role, but is widely used as a medium of international communication (e.g. China, Russia, Japan, most of Europe, Korea, Egypt, and Indonesia).
New Englishes
- The term "New Englishes" was coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries.
- These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
- New Englishes exist alongside other local languages and are used as a common medium for communication.
Language Imperialism
- Robert Philipson described Language Imperialism as the dominance of one language over another.
- It causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's political, economic, and social institutions.
- This can lead to the decline and death of a language, resulting in the impoverishment of its culture.
Conversational Maxims
- Paul Grice established the guidelines for conversational maxims in 1975.
- The maxims are:
- Quantity: Be informative, but not too informative.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Quality: Be truthful and have evidence.
- Manner: Be clear, polite, and respectful.
Conversational Face
- The concept of conversational face was initiated by Erving Goffman (1967) and developed by Brown and Levinson (1987).
- It refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth.
- Speakers may use positive politeness (e.g. compliments) or negative politeness (e.g. mitigating requests) to manage face-threatening acts.
Theories of Language and Thought
- Theories of language and thought include:
- Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.
- Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): Language acquisition is based on observation and imitation.
- Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): Knowledge and language come from experience and senses.
- Innatism (Plato, ~300BCE and Descartes, ~1620): The mind is born with innate ideas.
- Nativism (Noam Chomsky): The individual is born with genetic abilities that include language development.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- The hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in 1929, suggests that language directly shapes thought.
- It states that language determines the way we think, and a society is confined by its language.
- Criticisms of the hypothesis include issues with data collection and conclusions.
Other Theories
- The Boas-Jakobson Principle (1950s): Every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in required information.
- Universalism (1960s, Rik Pinxten, 2011): Language is a reflection of human thoughts, and all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
- Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) (Howard Giles, 1973): Individuals change their speech and language to accommodate others.
- The Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): Men and women have different conversational styles, which are influenced by their social roles and status.### Gender and Language
- Tannen's research on conversational styles:
- Men's conversation: giving and receiving information, asserting independence, and displaying status
- Women's conversation: building and reinforcing cooperative relationships, negotiating, and compromising
- Characteristics of men's conversation:
- Assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict
- Focus on giving and receiving information
- Characteristics of women's conversation:
- Cooperative and negotiating
- Focus on building relationships and compromising
Other Theories of Gender and Language
- Standpoint Theory (Harding and Wood, 1970s-1980s):
- Studies on women should be practiced from the point of view of women
- Women's lives and experiences are significantly different from men's, leading to a different type of knowledge
- Muted Group Theory (Shirley and Edwin Ardener, 1975; Cheris Kramarae, 1975):
- Minorities in a society have less power and are silenced
- Women are dominated by male status and power in many societies
Dominance and Difference Approaches
- Dominance Approach:
- Men are naturally more dominant than women
- Women act in a less dominant way around men
- Difference Approach:
- Male and female individuals have different lifestyles and communication styles
- Men and women use language for different outcomes
Deficit Approach (Otto Jespersen)
- Women's language:
- Talk a lot and use half-finished sentences
- Use 'and' to link sentences
- Use adjectives like 'pretty' and 'nice'
- Use adverbs frequently and tend towards hyperbole
- Have a smaller vocabulary than men
- Are more fluent in speaking and less hesitant than men
- Novels written by women:
- Easier to read due to simpler words and terminology
- Women's language in foreign languages:
- Gain spoken mastery more easily than men
- But men are superior in translating difficult texts
Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)
- Language is fundamental to gender inequality
- Women's language features:
- Speak less frequently
- Use minimal responses like 'mm' and 'yeah'
- Speak more quietly and use a higher pitch range
- Use hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
- Use a greater range of intonation
- Overuse qualifiers and hedge using phrases
- Apologize more and use tag questions
- Have a special lexicon and use more emotional evaluations
- Use more intensifiers and adjectives to describe approximate amounts
Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)
- Language differences are situation-specific and rely on power dynamics
- Challenged Lakoff's theory that language differences are due to gender
- Studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components are not specific to women, but rather to powerless individuals
Theories about Power in Language
- Language and Power (Wareing):
- Three types of power: Personal, Political, and Social Group
- Power can derive from occupation, role, or social variables
- Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Current situation of speakers affects power asymmetry
- Example: interviewer has a more dominant role in conversation
- Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Language used reflects power relationships between speakers
- Example: using 'sir' or not in a conversation
- Discourse Communities (Swales):
- Members of a professional community acquire language features of the group
- Community uses a specialist lexis due to shared specialist knowledge
Kachru's Circles
- Braj Kachru's model (1985) classifies the ways English is used throughout the world.
- The model consists of three circles:
- Inner Circle: English is the native language, or mother tongue, of most people in these countries (e.g. USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, English-speaking regions of Canada and South Africa).
- Outer Circle: English is regarded as a second language in these regions, where much of the administration is through the medium of English, mainly as a colonial legacy (e.g. India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Singapore, Kenya, and Afrikaans-speaking regions of South Africa).
- Expanding Circle: English plays no historical or governmental role, but is widely used as a medium of international communication (e.g. China, Russia, Japan, most of Europe, Korea, Egypt, and Indonesia).
New Englishes
- The term "New Englishes" was coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries.
- These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
- New Englishes exist alongside other local languages and are used as a common medium for communication.
Language Imperialism
- Robert Philipson described Language Imperialism as the dominance of one language over another.
- It causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's political, economic, and social institutions.
- This can lead to the decline and death of a language, resulting in the impoverishment of its culture.
Conversational Maxims
- Paul Grice established the guidelines for conversational maxims in 1975.
- The maxims are:
- Quantity: Be informative, but not too informative.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Quality: Be truthful and have evidence.
- Manner: Be clear, polite, and respectful.
Conversational Face
- The concept of conversational face was initiated by Erving Goffman (1967) and developed by Brown and Levinson (1987).
- It refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth.
- Speakers may use positive politeness (e.g. compliments) or negative politeness (e.g. mitigating requests) to manage face-threatening acts.
Theories of Language and Thought
- Theories of language and thought include:
- Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.
- Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): Language acquisition is based on observation and imitation.
- Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): Knowledge and language come from experience and senses.
- Innatism (Plato, ~300BCE and Descartes, ~1620): The mind is born with innate ideas.
- Nativism (Noam Chomsky): The individual is born with genetic abilities that include language development.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- The hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in 1929, suggests that language directly shapes thought.
- It states that language determines the way we think, and a society is confined by its language.
- Criticisms of the hypothesis include issues with data collection and conclusions.
Other Theories
- The Boas-Jakobson Principle (1950s): Every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in required information.
- Universalism (1960s, Rik Pinxten, 2011): Language is a reflection of human thoughts, and all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
- Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) (Howard Giles, 1973): Individuals change their speech and language to accommodate others.
- The Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): Men and women have different conversational styles, which are influenced by their social roles and status.### Gender and Language
- Tannen's research on conversational styles:
- Men's conversation: giving and receiving information, asserting independence, and displaying status
- Women's conversation: building and reinforcing cooperative relationships, negotiating, and compromising
- Characteristics of men's conversation:
- Assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict
- Focus on giving and receiving information
- Characteristics of women's conversation:
- Cooperative and negotiating
- Focus on building relationships and compromising
Other Theories of Gender and Language
- Standpoint Theory (Harding and Wood, 1970s-1980s):
- Studies on women should be practiced from the point of view of women
- Women's lives and experiences are significantly different from men's, leading to a different type of knowledge
- Muted Group Theory (Shirley and Edwin Ardener, 1975; Cheris Kramarae, 1975):
- Minorities in a society have less power and are silenced
- Women are dominated by male status and power in many societies
Dominance and Difference Approaches
- Dominance Approach:
- Men are naturally more dominant than women
- Women act in a less dominant way around men
- Difference Approach:
- Male and female individuals have different lifestyles and communication styles
- Men and women use language for different outcomes
Deficit Approach (Otto Jespersen)
- Women's language:
- Talk a lot and use half-finished sentences
- Use 'and' to link sentences
- Use adjectives like 'pretty' and 'nice'
- Use adverbs frequently and tend towards hyperbole
- Have a smaller vocabulary than men
- Are more fluent in speaking and less hesitant than men
- Novels written by women:
- Easier to read due to simpler words and terminology
- Women's language in foreign languages:
- Gain spoken mastery more easily than men
- But men are superior in translating difficult texts
Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)
- Language is fundamental to gender inequality
- Women's language features:
- Speak less frequently
- Use minimal responses like 'mm' and 'yeah'
- Speak more quietly and use a higher pitch range
- Use hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
- Use a greater range of intonation
- Overuse qualifiers and hedge using phrases
- Apologize more and use tag questions
- Have a special lexicon and use more emotional evaluations
- Use more intensifiers and adjectives to describe approximate amounts
Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)
- Language differences are situation-specific and rely on power dynamics
- Challenged Lakoff's theory that language differences are due to gender
- Studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components are not specific to women, but rather to powerless individuals
Theories about Power in Language
- Language and Power (Wareing):
- Three types of power: Personal, Political, and Social Group
- Power can derive from occupation, role, or social variables
- Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Current situation of speakers affects power asymmetry
- Example: interviewer has a more dominant role in conversation
- Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Language used reflects power relationships between speakers
- Example: using 'sir' or not in a conversation
- Discourse Communities (Swales):
- Members of a professional community acquire language features of the group
- Community uses a specialist lexis due to shared specialist knowledge
Kachru's Circles
- Braj Kachru's model (1985) classifies the ways English is used throughout the world.
- The model consists of three circles:
- Inner Circle: English is the native language, or mother tongue, of most people in these countries (e.g. USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, English-speaking regions of Canada and South Africa).
- Outer Circle: English is regarded as a second language in these regions, where much of the administration is through the medium of English, mainly as a colonial legacy (e.g. India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Singapore, Kenya, and Afrikaans-speaking regions of South Africa).
- Expanding Circle: English plays no historical or governmental role, but is widely used as a medium of international communication (e.g. China, Russia, Japan, most of Europe, Korea, Egypt, and Indonesia).
New Englishes
- The term "New Englishes" was coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries.
- These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
- New Englishes exist alongside other local languages and are used as a common medium for communication.
Language Imperialism
- Robert Philipson described Language Imperialism as the dominance of one language over another.
- It causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's political, economic, and social institutions.
- This can lead to the decline and death of a language, resulting in the impoverishment of its culture.
Conversational Maxims
- Paul Grice established the guidelines for conversational maxims in 1975.
- The maxims are:
- Quantity: Be informative, but not too informative.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Quality: Be truthful and have evidence.
- Manner: Be clear, polite, and respectful.
Conversational Face
- The concept of conversational face was initiated by Erving Goffman (1967) and developed by Brown and Levinson (1987).
- It refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth.
- Speakers may use positive politeness (e.g. compliments) or negative politeness (e.g. mitigating requests) to manage face-threatening acts.
Theories of Language and Thought
- Theories of language and thought include:
- Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.
- Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): Language acquisition is based on observation and imitation.
- Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): Knowledge and language come from experience and senses.
- Innatism (Plato, ~300BCE and Descartes, ~1620): The mind is born with innate ideas.
- Nativism (Noam Chomsky): The individual is born with genetic abilities that include language development.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- The hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in 1929, suggests that language directly shapes thought.
- It states that language determines the way we think, and a society is confined by its language.
- Criticisms of the hypothesis include issues with data collection and conclusions.
Other Theories
- The Boas-Jakobson Principle (1950s): Every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in required information.
- Universalism (1960s, Rik Pinxten, 2011): Language is a reflection of human thoughts, and all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
- Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) (Howard Giles, 1973): Individuals change their speech and language to accommodate others.
- The Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): Men and women have different conversational styles, which are influenced by their social roles and status.### Gender and Language
- Tannen's research on conversational styles:
- Men's conversation: giving and receiving information, asserting independence, and displaying status
- Women's conversation: building and reinforcing cooperative relationships, negotiating, and compromising
- Characteristics of men's conversation:
- Assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict
- Focus on giving and receiving information
- Characteristics of women's conversation:
- Cooperative and negotiating
- Focus on building relationships and compromising
Other Theories of Gender and Language
- Standpoint Theory (Harding and Wood, 1970s-1980s):
- Studies on women should be practiced from the point of view of women
- Women's lives and experiences are significantly different from men's, leading to a different type of knowledge
- Muted Group Theory (Shirley and Edwin Ardener, 1975; Cheris Kramarae, 1975):
- Minorities in a society have less power and are silenced
- Women are dominated by male status and power in many societies
Dominance and Difference Approaches
- Dominance Approach:
- Men are naturally more dominant than women
- Women act in a less dominant way around men
- Difference Approach:
- Male and female individuals have different lifestyles and communication styles
- Men and women use language for different outcomes
Deficit Approach (Otto Jespersen)
- Women's language:
- Talk a lot and use half-finished sentences
- Use 'and' to link sentences
- Use adjectives like 'pretty' and 'nice'
- Use adverbs frequently and tend towards hyperbole
- Have a smaller vocabulary than men
- Are more fluent in speaking and less hesitant than men
- Novels written by women:
- Easier to read due to simpler words and terminology
- Women's language in foreign languages:
- Gain spoken mastery more easily than men
- But men are superior in translating difficult texts
Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)
- Language is fundamental to gender inequality
- Women's language features:
- Speak less frequently
- Use minimal responses like 'mm' and 'yeah'
- Speak more quietly and use a higher pitch range
- Use hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
- Use a greater range of intonation
- Overuse qualifiers and hedge using phrases
- Apologize more and use tag questions
- Have a special lexicon and use more emotional evaluations
- Use more intensifiers and adjectives to describe approximate amounts
Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)
- Language differences are situation-specific and rely on power dynamics
- Challenged Lakoff's theory that language differences are due to gender
- Studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components are not specific to women, but rather to powerless individuals
Theories about Power in Language
- Language and Power (Wareing):
- Three types of power: Personal, Political, and Social Group
- Power can derive from occupation, role, or social variables
- Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Current situation of speakers affects power asymmetry
- Example: interviewer has a more dominant role in conversation
- Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Language used reflects power relationships between speakers
- Example: using 'sir' or not in a conversation
- Discourse Communities (Swales):
- Members of a professional community acquire language features of the group
- Community uses a specialist lexis due to shared specialist knowledge
Kachru's Circles
- Braj Kachru's model (1985) classifies the ways English is used throughout the world.
- The model consists of three circles:
- Inner Circle: English is the native language, or mother tongue, of most people in these countries (e.g. USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, English-speaking regions of Canada and South Africa).
- Outer Circle: English is regarded as a second language in these regions, where much of the administration is through the medium of English, mainly as a colonial legacy (e.g. India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Singapore, Kenya, and Afrikaans-speaking regions of South Africa).
- Expanding Circle: English plays no historical or governmental role, but is widely used as a medium of international communication (e.g. China, Russia, Japan, most of Europe, Korea, Egypt, and Indonesia).
New Englishes
- The term "New Englishes" was coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries.
- These varieties have developed their own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
- New Englishes exist alongside other local languages and are used as a common medium for communication.
Language Imperialism
- Robert Philipson described Language Imperialism as the dominance of one language over another.
- It causes the imperial language to gain control of a country's political, economic, and social institutions.
- This can lead to the decline and death of a language, resulting in the impoverishment of its culture.
Conversational Maxims
- Paul Grice established the guidelines for conversational maxims in 1975.
- The maxims are:
- Quantity: Be informative, but not too informative.
- Relation: Be relevant.
- Quality: Be truthful and have evidence.
- Manner: Be clear, polite, and respectful.
Conversational Face
- The concept of conversational face was initiated by Erving Goffman (1967) and developed by Brown and Levinson (1987).
- It refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth.
- Speakers may use positive politeness (e.g. compliments) or negative politeness (e.g. mitigating requests) to manage face-threatening acts.
Theories of Language and Thought
- Theories of language and thought include:
- Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.
- Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): Language acquisition is based on observation and imitation.
- Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): Knowledge and language come from experience and senses.
- Innatism (Plato, ~300BCE and Descartes, ~1620): The mind is born with innate ideas.
- Nativism (Noam Chomsky): The individual is born with genetic abilities that include language development.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- The hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in 1929, suggests that language directly shapes thought.
- It states that language determines the way we think, and a society is confined by its language.
- Criticisms of the hypothesis include issues with data collection and conclusions.
Other Theories
- The Boas-Jakobson Principle (1950s): Every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in required information.
- Universalism (1960s, Rik Pinxten, 2011): Language is a reflection of human thoughts, and all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
- Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) (Howard Giles, 1973): Individuals change their speech and language to accommodate others.
- The Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): Men and women have different conversational styles, which are influenced by their social roles and status.### Gender and Language
- Tannen's research on conversational styles:
- Men's conversation: giving and receiving information, asserting independence, and displaying status
- Women's conversation: building and reinforcing cooperative relationships, negotiating, and compromising
- Characteristics of men's conversation:
- Assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict
- Focus on giving and receiving information
- Characteristics of women's conversation:
- Cooperative and negotiating
- Focus on building relationships and compromising
Other Theories of Gender and Language
- Standpoint Theory (Harding and Wood, 1970s-1980s):
- Studies on women should be practiced from the point of view of women
- Women's lives and experiences are significantly different from men's, leading to a different type of knowledge
- Muted Group Theory (Shirley and Edwin Ardener, 1975; Cheris Kramarae, 1975):
- Minorities in a society have less power and are silenced
- Women are dominated by male status and power in many societies
Dominance and Difference Approaches
- Dominance Approach:
- Men are naturally more dominant than women
- Women act in a less dominant way around men
- Difference Approach:
- Male and female individuals have different lifestyles and communication styles
- Men and women use language for different outcomes
Deficit Approach (Otto Jespersen)
- Women's language:
- Talk a lot and use half-finished sentences
- Use 'and' to link sentences
- Use adjectives like 'pretty' and 'nice'
- Use adverbs frequently and tend towards hyperbole
- Have a smaller vocabulary than men
- Are more fluent in speaking and less hesitant than men
- Novels written by women:
- Easier to read due to simpler words and terminology
- Women's language in foreign languages:
- Gain spoken mastery more easily than men
- But men are superior in translating difficult texts
Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)
- Language is fundamental to gender inequality
- Women's language features:
- Speak less frequently
- Use minimal responses like 'mm' and 'yeah'
- Speak more quietly and use a higher pitch range
- Use hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
- Use a greater range of intonation
- Overuse qualifiers and hedge using phrases
- Apologize more and use tag questions
- Have a special lexicon and use more emotional evaluations
- Use more intensifiers and adjectives to describe approximate amounts
Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)
- Language differences are situation-specific and rely on power dynamics
- Challenged Lakoff's theory that language differences are due to gender
- Studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components are not specific to women, but rather to powerless individuals
Theories about Power in Language
- Language and Power (Wareing):
- Three types of power: Personal, Political, and Social Group
- Power can derive from occupation, role, or social variables
- Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Current situation of speakers affects power asymmetry
- Example: interviewer has a more dominant role in conversation
- Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough):
- Language used reflects power relationships between speakers
- Example: using 'sir' or not in a conversation
- Discourse Communities (Swales):
- Members of a professional community acquire language features of the group
- Community uses a specialist lexis due to shared specialist knowledge
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
