Endocrine System Lecture Overview
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Questions and Answers

Which hormone is transported and stored in the posterior pituitary?

  • Insulin
  • Vasopressin (correct)
  • Estrogen
  • Thyroid hormone

    • Where are the releasing hormones from the hypothalamus sent to?

  • Adrenal gland
  • Posterior pituitary
  • Thyroid gland
  • Anterior pituitary (correct)

    • What is the primary hormone for regulation of overall body growth?

  • Insulin
  • Estrogen
  • Thyroid hormone
  • Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) (correct)

    • Where is the hypophysis located?

    <p>Diencephalon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is referred to as the 'Master Gland'?

    <p>Pituitary gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many major hormones does the anterior pituitary secrete and release?

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Somatomedins' are stimulated for release by which organ?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Ghrelin' is released from which organ?

    <p>Gastric fundus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'IGFs' or somatomedins are stimulated for release by which hormone?

    <p>Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays an important role in intermediary metabolism and exerts largely anti-insulin effects?

    <p>Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hormones can be classified into categories based on which of the following?

    <p>Their chemical structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a major function of the Endocrine System?

    <p>Control of immune system functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are hormones transported in the bloodstream?

    <p>Bound to carrier proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that controls the secretion of hormones?

    <p>Timing and pattern</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do hormones produce their effects on target cells?

    <p>By interacting with specific receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which glands are included in the Central Endocrine Glands?

    <p>Pituitary gland, pineal gland, hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

    <p>To regulate anterior pituitary secretions through stimulatory and inhibitory hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Hypothalamus control pituitary secretions?

    <p>By converting electrical signals into chemical messages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of Hypothalamic hormones in regulating anterior pituitary secretions?

    <p>To influence growth and reproductive functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the Peripheral Endocrine Glands located?

    <p>Outside of the diencephalon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Pituitary Gland in the endocrine system?

    <p>To regulate metabolic functions through the hypophyseal portal system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Neurosecretory cells in the endocrine system?

    <p>To secrete hormones into ducts for communication with other glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hormone Vasopressin (ADH)?

    <p>Regulates urinary water loss and water balance in the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for ovulation and development of the corpus luteum in females?

    <p>Luteinizing hormone (LH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the Pineal Gland located?

    <p>In the diencephalon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the hormone Oxytocin?

    <p>Stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection during breast-feeding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary hormone secreted by the Thyroid Gland that promotes vascularization and growth of the thyroid gland?

    <p>Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland secretes melatonin, the hormone of darkness?

    <p>Pineal Gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Prolactin (PRL) in females?

    <p>Enhances breast development and milk production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for the production of sperm?

    <p>Testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of oestradiol?

    <p>Promotes maturation and maintenance of female reproductive organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is known as the 'hormone of pregnancy'?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does dihydrotestosterone (DHT) promote in target tissues?

    <p>Promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone reduces bone resorption and increases bone density?

    <p>Oestrogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of androgens in females?

    <p>Promotes bone thickness and periosteal bone formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells secrete testosterone in males?

    <p>Leydig cells of the testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle?

    <p>Production of ova or egg cells (oogenesis )</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the male sex hormones in females?

    <p>None of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a critical role in the normal female reproductive cycle?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone exerts anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects in the body?

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Parathyroid hormone (PTH) in the body?

    <p>Lowering plasma Ca++ levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for regulating fuel metabolism and promoting cellular uptake and storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids?

    <p>Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two hormones that have complementary interactions in regulating blood Ca++ levels?

    <p>Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and Vitamin D</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Calcitonin in the body?

    <p>Lowering plasma Ca++ levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is secreted by the adrenal medulla and reinforces the 'fight-or-flight' response?

    <p>Adrenaline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principal site of action for mineralocorticoids in the body?

    <p>Kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a key role in adaptation to stress in the body?

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of insulin in the body?

    <p>Regulating carbohydrate metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the hormone secreted by parafollicular or C cells of the thyroid gland that lowers plasma Ca++ levels through bone resorption and renal reabsorption?

    <p>Calcitonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the types of secretory cells in the endocrine pancreas consist?

    <p>Alpha, Beta, Delta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the hormone Pepsinogen?

    <p>Protein digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hormone Intrinsic factor?

    <p>Vitamin B12 absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for regulation of gastric secretion?

    <p>Histamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the Cephalic phase of gastric secretion?

    <p>Factors arising before food enters the stomach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site for absorption in the small intestine?

    <p>Jejunum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for promoting cellular uptake and storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids?

    <p>Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What inhibits acid secretion and promotes alkaline mucus secretion in the stomach?

    <p>Surface mucous cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are responsible for secreting hydrochloric acid in the stomach?

    <p>Parietal cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the Intestinal phase of gastric secretion?

    <p>Factors resulting from movement of food from stomach into duodenum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process refers to the transfer of small digested units, along with water, vitamins, and electrolytes, from the GI tract into the blood or lymph?

    <p>Absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the alimentary canal's middle part?

    <p>Main site of digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outermost layer of the wall structure of the alimentary canal called?

    <p>Serosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells serve as pacemaker cells in regulating the GI System?

    <p>Interstitial cells of Cajal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What refers to the process of moving a bolus of food through the pharynx and into the esophagus?

    <p>Deglutition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does most complete absorption of nutrients occur in the GI System?

    <p>Small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ releases digestive juices in the GI tract?

    <p>Pancreas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of chylomicrons in the digestive process?

    <p>Facilitating the absorption of monoglycerides and free fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component forms water-soluble micelles in the small intestine?

    <p>Bile salts and other bile constituents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central lacteals in the digestive system?

    <p>Transporting chylomicrons to capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process occurs when a micelle approaches the absorptive epithelial surface in the small intestine?

    <p>Passive diffusion of monoglycerides and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of bile salts in the digestion of dietary fat?

    <p>Emulsifying large fat globules into smaller fat droplets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of chylomicrons after being extruded through the basal membrane of small-intestine cells?

    <p>They enter the lymphatic vessels, the central lacteals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance prevents fat droplets from coalescing in the digestive process?

    <p>Bile salts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of pancreatic lipase in lipid digestion?

    <p>(Enzyme) Triglyceride hydrolysis into monoglycerides and free fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the small intestine is the first site of intensive digestion?

    <p>Duodenum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stimulates the release of hepatic and pancreatic secretions in the duodenum?

    <p>Arrival of chyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells in the pancreas secrete aqueous bicarbonate solution?

    <p>Exocrine Duct cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the small intestine freely absorbs all products of carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion?

    <p>Jejunum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main digestive function of the liver?

    <p>Production of bile</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are released from the gallbladder and are involved in fat emulsification?

    <p>Bile salts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the small intestine absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12, electrolytes, and water?

    <p>Ileum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of chyme in the duodenum leads to the release of CCK?

    <p>Fatty chyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do acinar cells in the pancreas secrete?

    <p>Pancreatic juice containing proteases, amylase, lipase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of secretin in the duodenum?

    <p>Acidic chyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of bile salts in digestion?

    <p>Emulsify fats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone regulates mineral absorption in the body through the small intestine?

    <p>Hepcidin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cavity contains the small bones of the middle ear?

    <p>Synovial cavities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the small intestine is the absorption of bile salts, vitamin B12, electrolytes, and water mainly occurring?

    <p>Ileum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the Pineal Gland located in the human body?

    <p>Between the cerebral hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a critical role in the normal female reproductive cycle?

    <p>Estrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of moving a bolus of food through the pharynx and into the esophagus?

    <p>Deglutition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is known as the 'hormone of pregnancy'?

    <p>Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does most complete absorption of nutrients occur in the GI System?

    <p>Small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central lacteals in the digestive system?

    <p>Transport of fat-soluble vitamins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cranial cavity houses which of the following organs in the human body?

    <p>Brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Abdominal cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pelvic cavity houses which of the following organs in the human body?

    <p>Urinary bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The serous membranes lining the body cavities include all of the following EXCEPT:

    <p>Endocardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plane is used to describe a cut that separates the body into left and right halves?

    <p>Sagittal plane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The diaphragm divides which of the following body cavities?

    <p>Thoracic and abdominal cavities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following regions is NOT one of the nine regions or quadrants used to identify the location of various organs within the body?

    <p>Cervical region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The superior and inferior mediastinum are subdivisions located within which major body cavity?

    <p>Thoracic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure does NOT lie within the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which plane divides the body into superior and inferior halves?

    <p>Transverse plane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT housed within the cranial cavity?

    <p>Spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In anatomical position, the body is upright with the palms turned forward. Which of the following directional terms describes a structure that is farther from the midline of the body?

    <p>Lateral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The navel is located ____ to the breastbone.

    <p>Posterior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The arms are ____ to the chest.

    <p>Lateral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which directional term describes a position nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk?

    <p>Proximal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The forehead is ____ to the nose.

    <p>Superior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The heart is ____ to the arm.

    <p>Medial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The elbow is ____ to the wrist.

    <p>Proximal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main aim of human anatomy?

    <p>The description of the shape of the macro‐microscopic structure, topography of the organs related to the individual, sexual, constitutional specific features of the human organism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Physiology mainly focus on?

    <p>The functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of physiology focuses on the operation of the heart and blood vessels?

    <p>Cardiovascular physiology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Comparative Anatomy concerned with?

    <p>Comparing body structures and organization in different species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At which level of organization do cells contain organelles?

    <p>Cellular level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is responsible for promoting cellular uptake and storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids?

    <p>Endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of granulosa cells of the ovarian follicle?

    <p>Facilitation of ovulation and development of corpus luteum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the hormone Oxytocin?

    <p>Stimulation of milk ejection during breastfeeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the kidney?

    <p>Production of insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the renal corpuscles located in cortical nephrons?

    <p>In the outer portion of the cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many renal corpuscles does each kidney contain?

    <p>~1 million</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or 1,25-dihydrooxyvitamin D3 or calcitriol?

    <p>Activation of vitamin D</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much arterial flow from the cardiac output is delivered to the kidneys each minute?

    <p>~1/4 (1200 ml)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component extends from the renal corpuscle in a nephron?

    <p>Renal tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the right kidney located in relation to the left kidney?

    <p>Lower than the left kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What penetrates only a small way into the medulla in cortical nephrons?

    <p>Loop of Henle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for regulation of RBC production?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron receives blood supply from vasa recta?

    <p>Thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in regulating glomerular filtration?

    <p>Relaxation of glomerulus to increase filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is released by the posterior pituitary and increases the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in the renal tubules?

    <p>Stimulating calcium reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone constricts both afferent and efferent arterioles to regulate glomerular filtration?

    <p>Angiotensin II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does glomerular filtration primarily occur in the nephrons?

    <p>Renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the small intestine absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12, electrolytes, and water?

    <p>Ileum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What regulates mineral absorption in the body through the small intestine?

    <p>Parathyroid hormone (PTH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone reduces bone resorption and increases bone density?

    <p>Parathyroid hormone (PTH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of secretin in the duodenum?

    <p>Acidic chyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of insulin in the body?

    <p>Facilitating cellular uptake of glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Leydig cells in the context of testosterone production?

    <p>Inducing differentiation of male accessory reproductive organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of androgens during puberty?

    <p>Inducing male secondary sex characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s Glands) in male reproductive system?

    <p>Producing alkaline mucus to buffer and lubricate urethra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of a typical ejaculate in terms of seminal fluid contribution?

    <p>60% from seminal vesicles, 30% from prostate, 10% from bulbourethral glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sequence represents the correct order of ducts through which sperm pass from their site of production to the exterior?

    <p>Epididymis; rete testis; vas deferens; ejaculatory duct; penile urethra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site for absorption in the small intestine?

    <p>Jejunum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical volume of a normal sperm count?

    <p>$50 to 150 millions/mL$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for promoting vascularization and growth of the thyroid gland?

    <p>Calcitonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Ghrelin' is released from which organ?

    <p>$Stomach$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two hormones that have complementary interactions in regulating blood $Ca^{++}$ levels?

    <p>Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structures are responsible for the synthesis and secretion of testosterone and other androgens in the testis?

    <p>Leydig cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules?

    <p>Controlling the formation and development of sperm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what temperature does sperm require for optimal development and maturation?

    <p>2-3°C below body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the cremaster muscle in the scrotum?

    <p>To adjust the temperature of the testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the life span of sperm in the female reproductive tract?

    <p>~72 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the seminiferous tubules join and pass into straight tube in the testis?

    <p>At the apex of each lobule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is ATP produced in sperm for energy?

    <p>By mitochondria in the middle part</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the accessory sex glands in males?

    <p>Secretion of most of the liquid portion of semen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Leydig cells in the testis?

    <p>Synthesizing and secreting testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Spermatogium with 2n=46 chromosomes multiply by?

    <p>Mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do chylomicrons after being extruded through the basal membrane of small-intestine cells go?

    <p>Lymphatic vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The male sex hormones are collectively known as?

    <p>Androgens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pair of chromosomes does the female genotype have?

    <p>XX</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is responsible for regulating gastric secretion?

    <p>Gastrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chance of having a boy according to the inheritance of gender diagram?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for the production of sperm?

    <p>Follicle-stimulating hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the male reproductive system, which organ contributes X chromosomes?

    <p>Testis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does glomerular filtration primarily occur in the nephrons?

    <p>Bowman's capsule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in regulating glomerular filtration?

    <p>Inhibiting sodium reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland secretes melatonin, the hormone of darkness?

    <p>Pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stimulates the release of hepatic and pancreatic secretions in the duodenum?

    <p>'Intestinal phase' of gastric secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of insulin in the body?

    <p>Promoting cellular uptake and storage of glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the Cephalic phase of gastric secretion?

    <p>Sight, smell, taste, or thought of food</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do acinar cells in the pancreas secrete?

    <p>Pancreatic digestive enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the sex glands located in the female reproductive system?

    <p>In the ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the external organs in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Forming the vulva</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormones are produced by the ovaries in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Progesterone, estrogen, inhibin, and relaxin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the female reproductive system is responsible for the process of ovulation?

    <p>Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the accessory organs of reproduction in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Oviducts and uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the breasts in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Secretion of milk for breastfeeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of oestrogen in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Stimulates breast growth, particularly glandular tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the female reproductive cycle does the uterine lining thicken?

    <p>Secretory (Luteal) phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers ovulation in the female reproductive cycle?

    <p>Surge in LH (luteinizing hormone) levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of progesterone in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Converts the oestrogen-primed endometrium to an actively secreting tissue suitable for implantation of an embryo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormones are produced by the ovaries and adrenals in small amounts, and have important functions in women?

    <p>Androgen and progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of oestrogen on vaginal epithelial cells proliferation?

    <p>Increases proliferation of vaginal epithelial cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone decreases milk inducing effects of prolactin?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of placenta-produced hormones during pregnancy?

    <p>Inhibit ovulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase does the ovarian follicle mature and secrete oestrogen triggering ovulation?

    <p>Follicular phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) secreted by the hypothalamus?

    <p>To promote oestrogen and progesterone production by the ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the oviducts in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Transport a fertilized ovum to the uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the process of forming gametes, oogenesis, occur in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the uterus in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Site of implantation and fetal development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the female reproductive system is responsible for the synthesis, secretion, and ejection of milk?

    <p>Mammary glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is associated with the process of ovulation in females?

    <p>Oestrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the external genitalia of the female, collectively referred to as the vulva, include?

    <p>Mons pubis and labia minora</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main site of action for mineralocorticoids in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of androgens in females?

    <p>Developing secondary sexual characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the dominant female sex hormones?

    <p>Oestrogen and progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the principal site of action for mineralocorticoids in the body?

    <p>Kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which glands secrete milk through a process called lactation in females?

    <p>Mammary glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What refers to the collective term for the external genitalia of the female reproductive system?

    <p>Vulva</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of testosterone and other androgens in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the infundibulum in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Transport a secondary oocyte into the tube</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is associated with the process of lactation in females?

    <p>Prolactin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the corpus luteum in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Produce hormones until it degenerates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the external genitalia of the female located?

    <p>Vulva</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is responsible for the delivery of the baby and menstrual flow in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Vagina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is involved in the process of ovulation in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the site of implantation of the fertilized ovum in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Uterus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the fimbriae in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Transport a secondary oocyte into the tube</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland secretes milk through lactation associated with pregnancy and childbirth?

    <p>Mammary glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ovaries are paired glands located in which cavity?

    <p>Pelvic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the clitoris in the female reproductive system?

    <p>Passageway for intercourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    • The Endocrine System is a specialized system consisting of ductless glands and neurosecretory cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

    • Hormones are biologically active chemical messengers that interact with distant target cells, leading to specific responses in terms of metabolism, growth, or reproduction.

    • The Endocrine System is one of the body's two major regulatory systems, controlling important functions such as cellular metabolism, water and electrolyte balance, cell growth, development, and reproduction, and helping the body cope with stressful situations.

    • Hormones can be classified into several categories based on their chemical structure, including amines, amino acid derivatives, polypeptides, proteins, glycoproteins, steroids, and hydrophilic vs lipophilic hormones.

    • Hormones are synthesized through either a vesicle-mediated pathway or a non-vesicle-mediated pathway, and are transported in the bloodstream either free and unbound or bound to carrier proteins.

    • The secretion of hormones is controlled by various factors, including timing and pattern (pulsatile or cyclical, diurnal or circadian rhythm), negative feedback, and end-product inhibition.

    • Hormones produce their effects on target cells by interacting with specific receptors, which are linked to specific effector systems in the cell, and can be classified into two broad types: cell surface receptors and intracellular or nuclear receptors.

    • Endocrine disorders can result from hyposecretion, hypersecretion, or abnormal target cell responsiveness, leading to a variety of health issues.

    • The Endocrine System is divided into two broad categories: the Central Endocrine Glands (hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland) and the Peripheral Endocrine Glands (thyroid glands, adrenal glands, endocrine pancreas, parathyroid glands, gonads).

    • The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland are located in the diencephalon and function cooperatively as the "master regulators" of the endocrine system, controlling critical homeostatic and metabolic functions through the hypophyseal portal system and the hypothalamo-hypophyseal nerve tract.

    • The Hypothalamus is the brain's coordinating center for endocrine, behavioral, and autonomic nervous system function, acting as a neuroendocrine transducer or bridge that converts electrical signals into chemical messages and releases hormones to control pituitary secretions.

    • Hypothalamic hormones regulate anterior pituitary secretions through stimulatory and inhibitory hormones, including growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), somatostatin, and dopamine.

    • Dr. Gabriel Boachie-Ansah teaches MPharm PHA112 The Endocrine System at the University of Sunderland. He can be contacted at [email protected] or ext. 2617.

    • In Week 16, the focus is on Anterior Pituitary Hormones and the Endocrine System.

    Anterior Pituitary Hormones:

    • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):
    • Promotes vascularization and growth of the thyroid gland.
    • Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones.
    • Stimulated by TRH from hypothalamus.
    • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):
    • Controls growth of the adrenal cortex.
    • Stimulates secretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex.
    • Stimulated by CRH from hypothalamus.
    • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):
    • Stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles (F) and sperm production (M).
    • Promotes ovarian secretion of estrogen (F).
    • Required for sperm production (M).
    • Stimulated by GnRH from hypothalamus.
    • Luteinizing hormone (LH):
    • Responsible for ovulation and development of the corpus luteum (F).
    • Regulates ovarian secretion of sex hormones (F).
    • Stimulates testes to secrete testosterone (M).
    • Stimulated by GnRH from hypothalamus.
    • Prolactin (PRL):
    • Enhances breast development and milk production (F).
    • Secretion inhibited by DA from hypothalamus.

    Posterior Pituitary Hormones:

    • Vasopressin (ADH):
    • Regulates urinary water loss and water balance in the body.
    • Promotes renal water reabsorption.
    • Regulates plasma volume and osmotic pressure.
    • Oxytocin:
    • Stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection during breast-feeding.
    • Secretion stimulated by birth canal and breast suckling reflexes.

    The Pineal Gland:

    • Located in the diencephalon.
    • Tiny, pine cone-shaped gland.
    • Secretes melatonin, the hormone of darkness.
    • Production stimulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the body's master biological clock.
    • Main functions: synchronizes body's circadian rhythms with the 24-hr day-night cycle, promotes sleep, and influences reproductive activity (onset of puberty).

    The Thyroid Gland:

    • Two lobes of endocrine tissue joined in the middle by a narrow strip of gland (isthmus).

    • Consists of two distinct secretory cell types, follicular cells and parafollicular or C cells.

    • Follicular cells secrete two iodine-containing hormones, Tetra-iodothyronine (T4 or thyroxine) and Tri-iodothyronine (T3).

    • Parafollicular or C cells secrete calcitonin (peptide hormone).

    • Located in the neck, just below the larynx.

    • The MPharm Programme in Week 16 focuses on the endocrine system, specifically the adrenocortical hormones and the endocrine pancreas.

    • The adrenocortical hormones include mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) and glucocorticoids (cortisol).

    • Mineralocorticoids are essential for maintaining Na+ and K+ balance and ECF volume, and promote Na+ retention and K+ excretion.

    • The principal site of action is the distal and collecting tubules of the kidney.

    • Secretion is regulated by angiotensin II, elevated serum K+ levels, and ACTH (minor).

    • Glucocorticoids are involved in regulating carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism.

    • They promote gluconeogenesis, cellular glucose uptake and utilization, protein synthesis and catabolism, and lipolysis.

    • Cortisol plays a key role in adaptation to stress and exerts anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects.

    • The adrenocortical hormones also include sex hormones, specifically 'androgenic' DHEA, which supplement sex hormones secreted by the gonads.

    • The adrenal medulla is a modified sympathetic postganglionic neuron that secretes adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine.

    • Its main functions include reinforcing the "fight-or-flight" response and maintaining arterial blood pressure by regulating heart rate, cardiac output, respiratory rate, and glycogenolysis and lipolysis.

    • The endocrine pancreas consists of clusters or 'islands' of secretory cells, called islets of Langerhans.

    • It comprises three types of secretory cells: alpha (glucagon), beta (insulin), and delta (somatostatin).

    • Insulin is an important anabolic hormone that regulates fuel metabolism and promotes cellular uptake and storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids.

    • It enhances their conversion into glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins through glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, triglyceride synthesis, and lipolysis, and protein synthesis and degradation.

    • Glucagon is generally opposing to insulin and mobilizes energy-rich molecules from storage sites into the bloodstream, raising blood glucose levels.

    • It induces hepatic glucose production, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, and lipolysis and ketogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis, and protein synthesis and degradation.

    • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a single most important regulator of blood Ca++ levels and raises plasma Ca++ levels through bone resorption, renal reabsorption, and the activation of vitamin D, which enhances intestinal absorption of Ca++.

    • Vitamin D is the second most important regulator of blood Ca++ levels and controls plasma Ca++ levels through intestinal absorption, bone resorption, and the synthesis of PTH.

    • Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by parafollicular or C cells of the thyroid gland and exerts opposite effects to PTH, lowering plasma Ca++ levels through bone resorption and renal reabsorption.

    • Its secretion is regulated by blood Ca++ levels.

    • PTH and vitamin D have complementary interactions, with vitamin D enhancing PTH synthesis and PTH regulating vitamin D activation and secretion.

    • The Gastro-intestinal (GI) System is a group of organs that work together to break down ingested food into smaller, absorbable nutrient molecules.

    • The main functions of the GI System include digesting food into smaller units, absorbing nutrients, and making preformed organic nutrient molecules available to the body.

    • The GI System performs five basic processes: motility, secretion, digestion, absorption, and storage & elimination of indigestible food.

    • Motility refers to muscular contractions that mix and move the contents of the digestive tract. There are two types of digestive motility: propulsive movements that push contents through the digestive tract, and mixing movements that mix food with digestive juices and promote absorption.

    • Secretion refers to the release of digestive juices in the GI tract in response to specific neural or hormonal stimulation. These secretions consist of water, electrolytes, and specific organic constituents, including enzymes, mucus, and hormones.

    • Digestion is the biochemical breakdown of complex foodstuffs into smaller, absorbable units. This process is accomplished by enzyme-mediated hydrolysis of complex foodstuffs into monosaccharides (carbohydrates), amino acids (proteins), and glycerol and fatty acids (fats).

    • Absorption is the transfer of small digested units, along with water, vitamins, and electrolytes, from the GI tract into the blood or lymph. This process occurs largely and most completely in the small intestine.

    • The GI System is composed of the alimentary canal, which is a long, continuous hollow tube stretching from the mouth to the anus, and accessory organs and glands, such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.

    • The alimentary canal is divided into three main parts: the upper part, which serves as the food intake source and receptacle site for initial digestive processes; the middle part, which is the site of main digestive and absorptive processes; and the lower part, which serves as the storage channel for efficient elimination of waste.

    • The wall structure of the alimentary canal consists of four layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. The mucosa is the innermost layer and serves as a protective barrier against pathogens, secretes mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones, and absorbs digested nutrients.

    • The GI System is regulated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which include interstitial cells of Cajal (pacemaker cells), intrinsic nerve plexuses, extrinsic nerves, and gastrointestinal hormones. These factors mediate the processes of digestion and absorption through complex regulatory mechanisms.

    • Digestive processes occur from the mouth to the stomach. Mastication, or chewing, aids in the mechanical breakdown of larger food units and mixes food with saliva, which contains salivary amylase and starts the process of partial digestion of starch. Deglutition, or swallowing, is the process of moving a bolus of food through the pharynx and into the esophagus.

    • The text is about the human body's anatomy, specifically focusing on body cavities, planes, and membranes.

    • There are three main body cavities: cranial, thoracic, and abdominopelvic.

    • The cranial cavity houses the brain, while the vertebral canal contains the spinal cord.

    • The thoracic cavity, also called the chest cavity, is formed by the ribs, muscles of the chest, sternum, and vertebral column. It has two fluid-filled spaces: the pleural cavities, which surround the lungs, and the pericardial cavity, which surrounds the heart.

    • The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is divided into two portions: the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines, while the pelvic cavity houses the urinary bladder, internal organs of the reproductive system, and portions of the large intestine.

    • The body cavities are lined by serous membranes, including the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. The visceral layer covers the organs within the cavities, while the parietal layer lines the walls of the cavities.

    • There are several planes used to describe the body's anatomy, including the sagittal, frontal or coronal, and oblique planes. These planes help to describe the location and orientation of various structures within the body.

    • There are also several important terms related to the body cavities and their subdivisions, including the dorsal body cavity, superior and inferior mediastinum, and the diaphragm.

    • The body cavities and their subdivisions are further delineated by nine regions or quadrants, including the right and left hypochondriac, epigastric, hypogastric (pubic), right and left lumbar, and umbilical regions. These regions help to identify the location of various organs within the body.

    • Nephrons come in two types: those with short loops of Henle (no thin segments in their ascending limbs) and those with long loops (thin and thick segments in their ascending limbs).

    • The former receive blood supply from peritubular capillaries, while the latter receive it from vasa recta.

    • Distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons empty into a single collecting duct.

    • Collecting ducts unite and converge into several hundred large papillary ducts which drain into minor and major calyces, renal pelvis, and ureters.

    • Glomerular filtration involves the filtration of 180 L of plasma daily, resulting in 178-179 L being returned to blood and 1-2 L in urine.

    • The filtration pressure is maintained at 10 mmHg.

    • Glomerular filtration is regulated by two hormones: angiotensin II constricts both afferent and efferent arterioles, while atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) causes the glomerulus to relax and increase filtration.

    • Sodium and other ions are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule through active transport, symporters, and secondary active transport.

    • The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle reabsorbs 20-30% of filtered sodium, potassium, and chloride; 35% of filtered bicarbonate; and variable amounts of calcium and magnesium.

    • The distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct reabsorb sodium and secrete potassium.

    • Five hormones, including angiotensin II, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and parathyroid hormone (PTH), affect sodium, chloride, calcium, and water reabsorption and potassium secretion in the renal tubules, maintaining homeostasis.

    • ADH is released by the posterior pituitary and increases the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule, while in its absence, the cells are almost impermeable to water.

    • PTH is released by the parathyroid gland and stimulates cells in the early distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb calcium, inhibiting phosphate reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule to promote phosphate excretion.

    • The uterine tubes, also known as Fallopian tubes or oviducts, transport a secondary oocyte from the ovary to the uterus, where fertilization usually occurs.

    • The uterus is the site of implantation of the fertilized ovum, development of the fetus during pregnancy, and labor.

    • The vagina is the passageway for intercourse and childbirth, and is the site of menstruation.

    • The ovaries are paired glands located in the pelvic cavity, each with a structure consisting of a germinal epithelium, tunica albuginea, ovarian cortex, and follicles.

    • Oogenesis, the process of forming gametes in the ovaries, involves several stages, including the formation of primary oocytes during fetal development, maturation of a few into secondary oocytes each month, and ovulation of one secondary oocyte from a mature follicle.

    • Ovulation is the process by which a mature follicle ruptures, releasing a secondary oocyte, and is followed by the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces hormones until it degenerates.

    • The oviducts are narrow tubes that extend from the ovary to the uterus, with various structures, including the infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus, and fimbriae, which help to move the secondary oocyte into the tube and towards the uterus.

    • The uterus is a muscular organ that is responsible for maintaining the fetus during development and expelling it at the end of pregnancy, and is about 3 inches long, 2 inches wide, and 1 inch thick.

    • The vagina is a fibrous muscular canal that extends from the exterior to the cervix, is about 10cm long, and is lined with mucous membrane. It serves as a passageway for sperm, the delivery of the baby, and menstrual flow.

    • The external genitalia of the female, collectively referred to as the vulva, includes the mons pubis, labia minora and labia majora, and the clitoris.

    • The mammary glands are modified sudoriferous glands that secrete milk through a process called lactation, which is associated with pregnancy and childbirth. They are internally composed of lobes, lobules, and alveoli.

    • The process of lactation involves the synthesis, secretion, and ejection of milk from the alveoli, and is stimulated by the hormones oestrogen, progesterone, and prolactin.

    • The dominant female sex hormones are oestrogen and progesterone.

    Note: The above summary is based on the provided text and is not meant to be an exhaustive or definitive summary. It is intended to capture the key facts, figures, and entities mentioned in the text.

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    Description

    Get an overview of the endocrine system in this lecture, covering general principles of endocrine function, types of hormones and signaling pathways, central and peripheral endocrine glands and their hormones.

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