BOTANY LEC LESSON 2
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Questions and Answers

What is the living substance of cells composed of?

Cytoplasm and the structures within it

What percentage of cytoplasm and its included structures is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen?

96%

What percentage of cytoplasm and its included structures is composed of phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur?

3%

What are the large molecules with "backbones" of carbon atoms called?

<p>Organic</p> Signup and view all the answers

The myriad of chemical reactions of living organisms is based on organic compounds.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following molecules are exceptions to the general rule that molecules containing no carbon atoms are called inorganic?

<p>Sodium bicarbonate ($NaHCO_3$)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are large molecules called macromolecules or polymers composed of?

<p>Monomers</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are the four most important classes of polymers found in cells?

<p>Nucleic acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the mass of most plants does water make up?

<p>90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the characteristics of water?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

Carbohydrates are the most abundant compounds.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?

<p>1:2:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the simplest sugar called?

<p>Monosaccharide</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a monosaccharide?

<p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the sugar found in blood?

<p>Glucose or dextrose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the other name for the sugar found in wood?

<p>Xylose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the sugar found in fruits?

<p>Fructose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are disaccharides composed of?

<p>Two monosaccharide units</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the sugar found in table sugar?

<p>Sucrose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do polysaccharides consist of?

<p>Many sugar units</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the polysaccharide found in plants that stores energy?

<p>Starch</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the polysaccharide found in animals that stores energy?

<p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the polysaccharide that makes up the exoskeletons of insects?

<p>Chitin</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name for the polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of plants?

<p>Cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the functions of carbohydrates?

<p>Energy storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are lipids composed of?

<p>C, H, O, N, and sulfur</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the functions of lipids?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are proteins composed of?

<p>Amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the functions of proteins?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is nucleic acid composed of?

<p>Nucleotides</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of nucleic acids?

<p>DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is DNA responsible for?

<p>Storing genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is DNA primarily found in a cell?

<p>The nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many strands does DNA have?

<p>Two</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four nitrogenous bases present in DNA?

<p>Adenine</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the basic unit of life?

<p>The cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who was the first scientist to observe cells?

<p>Robert Hooke</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who first described the nucleus of a cell?

<p>Robert Brown</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed the cell theory, which states that all living organisms are composed of cells?

<p>Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who proposed that all cells come from pre-existing cells?

<p>Rudolf Virchow</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of cells?

<p>Prokaryotes</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prokaryotic cells have a nucleus

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate size of a prokaryotic cell?

<p>0.1-10 µm</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a prokaryotic cell?

<p>Bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the rigid outer layer of a plant cell that provides strength and protection?

<p>Cell wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the cell wall primarily composed of?

<p>Cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the gel-like fluid that fills the inside of a plant cell and contains organelles?

<p>Cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a plant cell component?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the nucleus in a plant cell?

<p>Storing genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the mitochondrion in a plant cell?

<p>Energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the chloroplast in a plant cell?

<p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the vacuole in a plant cell?

<p>Storage and turgor pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a plant cell?

<p>Protein and lipid synthesis and transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in a plant cell?

<p>Processing and packaging of proteins and lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ribosomes in a plant cell?

<p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three layers of the cell wall?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cell wall located?

<p>Between the plasma membrane and the middle lamella</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the middle lamella located?

<p>Between the primary walls of adjacent cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the secondary cell wall located?

<p>Inside the primary wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the component of the cell wall, along with hemicellulose, that gives wood its distinctive texture?

<p>Lignin</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main component of the protoplasm?

<p>Proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

All of a cell's components except the cell wall form the protoplasm.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of molecular pumps in a cell?

<p>Actively transporting substances in and out of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cytoplasm composed of?

<p>The contents of the protoplasm, excluding the nucleus and vacuole</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the mitochondria?

<p>Cellular respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the inner membrane of the mitochondria folded into?

<p>Crista</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fluid-filled space between the cristae?

<p>Matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

The outer mitochondrial membrane is freely permeable

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

<p>Processing and packaging molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the stacked flattened sacs in the Golgi apparatus?

<p>Cisternae</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

<p>Synthesis and transport of molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between rough ER and smooth ER?

<p>Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface, while smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to its surface.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the ribosomes?

<p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a polysome?

<p>A cluster of ribosomes bound together by messenger RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are microbodies?

<p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two classes of microbodies?

<p>Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of peroxisomes?

<p>Detoxification</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plastids are found in all plants and algae.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plastids are found in animals.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the types of plastids?

<p>Amyoplasts, chloroplasts, etioplasts, and proplastids</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of amyoplasts?

<p>Starch storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of thylakoids?

<p>Photosynthetic pigment integration and light absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of grana?

<p>Stacking of thylakoids for efficient light harvesting</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the stroma?

<p>Conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the nucleus?

<p>Storing and controlling genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the nuclear envelope?

<p>Surrounding and protecting the nucleus and regulating transport of substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the nuclear pores?

<p>Transport of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the nucleoplasm?

<p>Supporting and regulating nuclear processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the vacuole?

<p>Storage of various compounds and maintaining turgor pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tonoplast?

<p>Surrounding the vacuole</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the central vacuole?

<p>Storage of nutrients and waste products, maintenance of turgor pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the cytosol and the hyaloplasm?

<p>Site of numerous biochemical reactions and cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of microtubules?

<p>Structural support, cell movement, chromosome organization during cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two globular proteins that make up microtubules?

<p>Alpha tubulin and beta tubulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of centrioles?

<p>Organizing microtubules for cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of microfilaments?

<p>Structural support, cell movement, muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the single type of globular protein that makes up microfilaments?

<p>Actin</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of hemicellulose?

<p>Binding cellulose microfibrils together</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of plasmodesmata?

<p>Connecting adjacent plant cells and facilitating communication</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plant cells have a cell wall, while animal cells do not.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Plant cells have a single large central vacuole, while animal cells have multiple smaller vacuoles.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Chemistry and its Function to Plants

  • Living cells consist of cytoplasm and structures within it
  • About 96% of cytoplasm and structures are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
  • 3% consists of phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur
  • The remaining 1% includes calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, chlorine, copper, manganese, cobalt, zinc, and minute quantities of other elements
  • Large molecules contain carbon backbones and are considered organic
  • Chemical reactions in living organisms are based on organic compounds
  • Most molecules without carbon are inorganic; exceptions include carbon dioxide and sodium bicarbonate
  • The term "organic" was applied to living things' chemicals when it was believed that only living organisms could create carbon-containing molecules

Monomers and Polymers

  • Most cell components are large molecules called macromolecules or polymers
  • Polymers are formed when two or more smaller units (monomers) bond together
  • Important polymer classes in cells include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Chemistry of Life

  • Inorganic Compounds: Water
  • Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, Lipids/Fats, Proteins, Nucleic acid

Characteristics of Water

  • Water makes up 90% of most plants' mass
  • Water has cohesive properties
  • Water has a high heat of vaporization
  • Water is versatile as a solvent

Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrates are the most abundant compounds in organisms
  • Their chemical formula is C, H, O (1:2:1)

Types of Carbohydrates

  • Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (glucose, fructose, xylose)
  • Disaccharides: Composed of two monosaccharide units (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose)
  • Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates with many sugar units (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)
  • Oligosaccharides: Contain 3-6 sugar units

Lipids

  • Lipid functions include energy storage, heat insulation, membrane structure, and protection

Proteins

  • Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
  • Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Nucleic Acids

  • Nucleic acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
  • Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids
  • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): double-stranded, molecules of life, found in the nucleus, adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine
  • RNA (ribonucleic acid): single-stranded, found in the cytoplasm, adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine

Cells

  • The basic unit of life
  • History of Cell Study: Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Robert Brown, Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow
  • Types of Cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cell Structure (Plant Structures)

  • Plant Cell Components: Chloroplast, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Nucleus, Lysosome, Vacuole, Golgi Complex, Mitochondrion, Ribosome, Cytoplasm
  • Cell Wall: An inert secretion, providing protection, contains cellulose microfibrils (packed together by hemicelluloses), cellulose microfibrils adjacent, parallel, and that crystallize
  • 3 Layers of Cell Wall: Primary Cell Wall, Middle Lamella, Secondary Cell Wall
  • Protoplasm: A mass of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and water (everything within the cell)
  • Plasma Membrane (aka plasmalemma): The selectively permeable membrane covering the protoplasm; keeps substances moving in/out of the cell
  • Cytoplasm: The material remaining after excluding the nucleus, vacuole, and protoplasm
  • Mitochondria (pl. mitochondria): Tiny organelles bounded by a double membrane, using cellular respiration; known as the "powerhouse" of the cell
  • Crista: Folded mitochondrial membranes that provide room for enzymes
  • Matrix: Area between cristae, site for reactions not involving highly reactive intermediates
  • Golgi apparatus/dictyosomes: Stacks of thin vesicles, aids in growth and cell wall formation. Cisternae - ER vesicles fuse to create the vesicles.
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Membrane system throughout cytoplasm; Rough ER - ribosomes attached for protein synthesis; Smooth ER - lipid synthesis and membrane assembly
  • Ribosomes: Particles responsible for protein synthesis; complex aggregates of RNA and proteins
  • Microbodies: Spherical bodies, 2 classes, that isolate reactions involving peroxide (H2O2), Peroxisomes – involved in detoxifying products of photosynthesis; Glyoxysomes – convert fats to sugars (germination of oily seeds]
  • Plastids: Occur in plants and algae, not animals/fungi; perform many functions, including photosynthesis
    • Types of Plastids: Amyoplasts (store starch), Chloroplasts, Etioplasts (specific stage in the transformation, occur when tissues are grown without light), Proplastids (small, undifferentiated plastids)
      • Leucoplast: Colorless plastids, store starches, oils, or proteins; found in stems, roots, seeds
      • Chromoplast: Contain yellow, orange, and red pigments; often form from chloroplasts when chlorophyll breaks down; found in tomatoes and leaves of deciduous trees.
    • Parts of Plastids: Inner and Outer Membrane; Thylakoids (increase membrane area), Grana (stack of thylakoids), Stroma (conversion of CO2 to carbs)
  • Nucleus (pl. nuclei): Archive/permanent storage place for plant genetic info; nuclear envelope separates nuclear material; chromatin (darkly staining bodies inside nucleus)
  • Nucleoplasm: A complex association of DNA, enzymes, histone proteins (support DNA, chromatin), RNA, water, and necessary substances for nuclear metabolism
  • Nucleolus: Area where ribosome components are synthesized; control center of the cell
  • Vacuole: Appears to be an empty membrane storing water, salts, crystals, starch, protein bodies; tonoplast - vacuole membrane; central vacuole (large, nutrient/waste storage, turgor pressure)
  • Cytosol (aka Hyaloplasm): Clear substance within the cytoplasm; composed of water, enzymes, chemical precursors, intermediates, and products
  • Microtubules: Act as cytoskeleton, hold certain regions of the cell, support expansion, means of motility for organelles/whole cells
  • Types of Globular Proteins that Make up the Microtubules: Alpha tubulin, Beta tubulin
  • Centrioles: Made up of microtubules (organize spindle mictotubules)
  • Microfilaments: Consist of actin monomers, narrower than microtubules
  • Hemicellulose: Binds cellulose microfibrils
  • Lignin: Together with hemicellulose, makes the secondary cell wall stronger (resistant to chemical, fungal, and bacterial attacks); provides strength to woody plants
  • Plasmodesmata: Fine holes in the cell wall that interconnect plant cells
  • Comparison with animal cells (Plant vs Animal)
  • Comparison with fungal cells (Plant vs Fungi)
  • Divisions of Kingdom Plantae: Bryophyta (mosses), Pteridophyta (ferns), Coniferophyta (conifers), Anthophyta (flowering plants)
  • 5 Kingdoms of Organisms: Prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera - bacteria and cyanobacteria), Eukaryotes (Kingdom Protista - protozoa, algae; Kingdom Mycetae - fungi; Kingdom Animalia - animals; Kingdom Plantae - plants)
  • Examples shown: Onion cell, H. verticullata, sections of plant cells (tomato skin, staining of A. cepa)

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