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Questions and Answers

Which ECG lead is mainly negative and placed on the right side of the sternum?

  • V2
  • V1 (correct)
  • V3
  • V4

    • What is the normal duration of the QRS complex?

  • <100ms (correct)
  • <150ms
  • <200ms
  • <50ms

    • What is the normal PR interval range?

  • 120-200ms (correct)
  • 150-250ms
  • 100-150ms
  • 200-300ms

    • Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a P wave?

    <p>Negative in leads I, II, III</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of drawing a triangle using the QRS complex from two leads?

    <p>To determine the cardiac vector</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which lead is the Q wave usually small or absent? if QRS heads upwards

    <p>Lead II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of labeling the vertical axis in units of pressure in a diagram of the pressure profiles?

    <p>To quantify the pressure changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ECG lead is placed at the anterior axillary line and is mainly positive?

    <p>V6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased preload on stroke volume?

    <p>Increased stroke volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between compliance and afterload?

    <p>High compliance corresponds to low afterload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the elasticity of the aorta in older people?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an enlarged heart on ventricular contraction?

    <p>Ventricles contract more weakly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the force of contraction of ventricular muscle?

    <p>Inotropy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal end-diastolic volume (EDV)?

    <p>120 ml</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased afterload on the period of isovolumetric contraction?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cohesive forces of the intrapleural fluid?

    <p>To hold the lungs and chest wall together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when intrapleural pressure becomes equal to or exceeds atmospheric pressure?

    <p>The lung collapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component of the connective tissue in the walls of alveoli?

    <p>Elastic fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of the lungs to be stretched?

    <p>Lung compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the slope of the curve in the volume-pressure curve?

    <p>It represents lung compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where lung volume at any pressure during inhalation is lower than during expiration?

    <p>Hysteresis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of age and emphysema on lung compliance?

    <p>It increases lung compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of an increase in fibrous tissue in the lung?

    <p>Decreased lung compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of fenestrated capillaries?

    <p>To facilitate bulk exchange of solutes and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of capillary has the highest permeability?

    <p>Sinusoidal/discontinuous capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which digoxin increases contractility in the heart?

    <p>It decreases the activity of the Na/K ATPase pump, leading to increased calcium levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of solute exchange in capillaries?

    <p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of angina pectoris in the myocardial muscle?

    <p>Increased oxygen demand exceeding supply</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the basement membrane in capillaries?

    <p>To provide structural support to the capillary wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of capillary is characterized by the presence of numerous transport vesicles?

    <p>Capillaries in skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of nitrates on the cardiovascular system?

    <p>Vasodilation and decreased preload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of beta adrenoceptor antagonists in reducing oxygen demand in the myocardium?

    <p>Decreased heart rate and contractility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of sinusoidal/discontinuous capillaries?

    <p>Presence of smooth muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the metarteriole in the microcirculation?

    <p>To direct blood flow to the capillary bed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of statins in reducing cholesterol levels?

    <p>Inhibition of HMG Co-A reductase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between continuous capillaries and fenestrated capillaries?

    <p>The size of the fenestrations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of PCSK9 inhibitors in reducing LDL cholesterol levels?

    <p>Inhibition of PCSK9, leading to increased LDL receptor activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is anaemia, in the context of blood and haematology?

    <p>A decrease in the amount of haemoglobin in the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of extracellular fluid composed of plasma?

    <p>20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical percentage of haemoglobin bound to O2 in a normal individual?

    <p>96-99%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the condition where the arterial oxygen saturation is below 90%?

    <p>Hypoxaemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the 2, 3 DPG in the centre of the haemoglobin?

    <p>Enhances the ability of RBCs to release O2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve and oxygen saturation?

    <p>The curve describes oxygen binding to haemoglobin, while saturation is the proportion of haemoglobin bound to O2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of gradual methaemoglobin formation?

    <p>Decreased oxygen binding to haemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between adult haemoglobin and foetal haemoglobin?

    <p>Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the iron atom in the haem group?

    <p>Forms 4 covalent bonds with nitrogen atoms in the porphyrin ring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a congenital deficiency of methaemoglobin reductase?

    <p>Polycythaemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate volume of the dead space in the respiratory system?

    <p>150-200ml</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ciliated pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium in the trachea and bronchi?

    <p>To trap dust and bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture?

    <p>Partial pressure = total pressure in gas mixture x fractional concentration of gas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Type II alveolar cells in the alveoli?

    <p>To produce surfactant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate total cross-sectional area of the respiratory zone?

    <p>Rapidly increasing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the macrophages in the alveoli?

    <p>To trap dust and bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of surfactant produced by the Type II alveolar cells?

    <p>Phospholipoprotein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the mucociliary elevator in the respiratory system?

    <p>To move mucus up towards the throat for swallowing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in pressure between the systemic and pulmonary circulation?

    <p>The difference in the total vascular resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary solute exchange mechanism in capillaries that allows for the movement of small molecules like H2O and ions?

    <p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of capillary has a continuous closed basal lamina but contains small circular pores, allowing for the free passage of H2O and salts from plasma to tissue?

    <p>Fenestrated capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in blood delivered to the atria on the force of contraction of the ventricle?

    <p>The force of contraction increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the large diameter and thin elastic walls of the pulmonary arteries?

    <p>To reduce pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of sinusoidal/discontinuous capillaries?

    <p>Highest permeability and largest fenestrations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a decrease in preload on the cardiac output?

    <p>Cardiac output decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the basement membrane in capillaries?

    <p>To provide structural support to the capillary wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the metarteriole in the microcirculation?

    <p>To direct blood flow from the arterioles to the venules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of systemic capillaries compared to pulmonary capillaries?

    <p>Smaller diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of fluid movement between the plasma, interstitium, and lymph?

    <p>Capillary pressure, plasma colloid osmotic pressure, and interstitial colloid osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism by which the heart is able to pump out all the blood that is delivered into the atria?

    <p>The overlap of filaments at rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of the lungs to be stretched, which is affected by the elasticity of the aorta in older people?

    <p>Compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in afterload on the cardiac output?

    <p>Cardiac output decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary significance of the difference in pressure between the systemic and pulmonary circulation?

    <p>To ensure blood flow to the rest of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of an increase in fibrous tissue in the lung, which can lead to oedema?

    <p>Decreased lung compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Glomus type I cells?

    <p>To release neurotransmitters to stimulate CN IX and CN X</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for activation of J receptors?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of stimulating irritant receptors?

    <p>Cough reflex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary response of peripheral chemoreceptors to low oxygen levels?

    <p>Depolarization of glomus membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the reticular formation of the medulla?

    <p>Regulation of ventilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between peripheral and central chemoreceptors?

    <p>Central receptors respond to O2, while peripheral receptors respond to CO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the glossopharyngeal nerve in respiratory control?

    <p>Transmission of signals from peripheral chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the threshold for activation of peripheral chemoreceptors in response to hypoxia?

    <p>PO2 less than 60 mm Hg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dense bodies in smooth muscle cells?

    <p>Transmission of force generated by contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which calcium ions trigger muscle contraction in smooth muscle?

    <p>Binding to troponin C in the sarcomere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of gap junctions in smooth muscle cells?

    <p>Providing a pathway for the passage of electrical signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of multiunit smooth muscle?

    <p>Each cell receives synaptic input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary location of single unit smooth muscle?

    <p>Bladder and gut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of varicosities in smooth muscle cells?

    <p>Releasing neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between multiunit and single unit smooth muscle?

    <p>Synaptic input received by each cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of contraction in smooth muscle cells?

    <p>Binding of calcium to troponin C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the sensory fibres found in the right atrium and left atrium?

    <p>To detect changes in blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the hormone released by specialized muscle cells in the right atrium and inferior vena cava?

    <p>Atrial natriuretic peptide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of blood is stored in the capillaries and veins?

    <p>65%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the osmoreceptors located that measure osmotic pressure of blood?

    <p>Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased thirst on blood volume regulation?

    <p>Increased fluid intake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the neurons that measure blood volume?

    <p>To regulate blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on the kidney?

    <p>Decreased reabsorption of fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the neurons that measure blood volume send information to?

    <p>NTS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the adrenal gland secretes adrenaline?

    <p>Medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating blood pressure during exercise?

    <p>It increases heart rate to compensate for vasodilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of postganglionic nerve fibers in sweat glands?

    <p>They are cholinergic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the low-level tonic activity of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Basal tone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Stimulating the parasympathetic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the location of the pre-vertebral ganglia, also known as sympathetic ganglia?

    <p>Below the diaphragm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the path of some preganglionic neurons in the adrenal gland?

    <p>They travel out to the adrenaline nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating blood flow to the brain and heart?

    <p>It has no effect on blood flow to the brain and heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)?

    <p>To forcibly inhale air after inspiration of normal tidal volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the volume of air that can be taken into the lungs in full inhalation?

    <p>Inspiratory Capacity (IC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after maximum inhalation?

    <p>Vital Capacity (VC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation?

    <p>Residual Volume (RV)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the calculation for Inspiratory Capacity (IC)?

    <p>IRV + TV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the amount of air a person breathes per minute?

    <p>Minute Ventilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the device that measures airflow rather than air volume?

    <p>Vitalograph</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the volume of air in the lungs at the end of passive expiration?

    <p>Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in partial pressures of oxygen between alveolar gas and mixed pulmonary venous blood?

    <p>The efficient transfer of oxygen between alveoli and blood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of changing breathing rate on oxygen saturation?

    <p>It has no effect on oxygen saturation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cohesive forces of the intrapleural fluid?

    <p>To resist being pulled apart.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the negative intrapleural pressure?

    <p>The sub-atmospheric pressure between the lung surface and the inner chest wall of the thorax.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of inspiration on intrapleural pressure?

    <p>It decreases intrapleural pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in oxygen partial pressure between the apices and the bases of the lungs?

    <p>The difference in blood flow between the apices and bases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of changing breathing rate on CO2 excretion?

    <p>It increases CO2 excretion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in CO2 partial pressure between the alveoli and pulmonary venous blood?

    <p>The difference in CO2 transport between the alveoli and pulmonary venous blood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the volume of air that can be taken into the lungs in full inhalation?

    <p>3700 mL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation?

    <p>Residual Volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after maximum inhalation?

    <p>4800 mL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the instrument used to measure airflow?

    <p>Vitalograph</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the volume of air breathed in and out at rest?

    <p>0.5 L</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled after inspiration of normal tidal volume?

    <p>3100 mL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of creatinine being actively secreted by the glomerulus?

    <p>It leads to overestimation of GFR by 10-20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of PAH in measuring renal plasma flow?

    <p>It is used to measure RPF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of erythropoietin releasing cells being in the kidney?

    <p>They regulate oxygen carrying capacity of the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in oxygen partial pressure between the apices and the bases of the lungs?

    <p>Ventilation perfusion mismatch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the thick-walled, ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

    <p>It plays a key role in producing concentrated or dilute urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the force that opposes the contraction of ventricular muscle?

    <p>Afterload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar gas?

    <p>100 mm Hg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of incorporating water vapor in alveolar gas on the total pressure?

    <p>It decreases the total pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the osmolarity of blood plasma?

    <p>300 mOsm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the highest partial pressure of oxygen found in the lungs?

    <p>160 mm Hg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that maximizes gas transport in the lungs?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of altitude on the partial pressure of oxygen?

    <p>It decreases the partial pressure of oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

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