60 Questions
In what year did Somalia gain independence from the UN trusteeship?
1960
What was the name of the newly formed state in 1960?
United Republic of Somalia
What was the message conveyed by Somalia to its neighbors through its national flag?
An unequivocal irredentist message
How many phases of decisional behavior are identified in the conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia?
Four phases
What was the period of UN trusteeship over former British and Italian Somaliland?
10 years
Which former French colony was involved in the territorial dispute with Somalia?
Djibouti
During what year did the alignments of the superpowers in the Horn of Africa change?
1977
What was a major point of contention in the Ogaden Desert?
Denial of access to land and water
What was one of the terms demanded of Somalia by Ethiopia and Kenya?
Renunciation of all territorial claims against Ethiopia and Kenya
What was the name of the conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia in 1977-1978?
Ogaden War
What was the primary source of support for Presidents of Somalia?
Members of their clan
How did Siad Barré retain power in Somalia?
By mobilizing intra-clan support and loose alignments with other clans
What event occurred in 1977-1978 during Siad Barré's rule?
Somalia fought a war against Ethiopia
Who was restored to his throne in 1941 by the UK?
Haile Selassie
How many phases did Ethiopia's behavior in the conflict have?
Two
What did Somalia's constitution proclaim as its goal?
To unify all ethnic Somali majority territory
What did Ethiopia secure formal approval of in the Organization of African Unity (OAU)?
The inviolability of state frontiers
Why did Somalia perceive the military alliance between Ethiopia and Kenya as threatening?
Because it threatened Somalia's claim to Kenya's North West District
What was the outcome of the agreement between Somalia and Ethiopia a year after their conflict?
The demilitarization of their border and resumption of diplomatic relations
Why did Somalia join the Arab League?
To secure aid and support for its goal of unifying ethnic Somali majority territory
Djibouti was a former British colony.
False
The Ogaden War between Ethiopia and Somalia lasted from 1976 to 1977.
False
The USA was a patron of Somalia in the 1960s.
False
Ethiopia and Somalia had significant economic relations during their conflict.
False
The rulers of Ethiopia and Kenya demanded reparations from Somalia for damage caused by Ethiopia during the Ogaden War.
False
Somalia's constitution proclaimed the goal of unification of all ethnic Arab majority territory.
False
Ethiopia and Kenya formed a military alliance in 1962.
False
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) approved the principle of the inviolability of state frontiers at the request of Somalia.
False
Somalia's provision of weapons to neighboring states was authorized by its constitution.
True
The demilitarization of the border and resumption of diplomatic relations between Somalia and Ethiopia occurred in 1962.
False
The Ethiopian-Somalia conflict is a resolved conflict.
False
Somalia and Ethiopia formed a united republic in 1960.
False
The Somali national flag features five stars, representing the five territories claimed by Somalia.
True
The Ogaden Desert was a major point of contention between Ethiopia and Somalia.
True
Somalia was a former French colony.
False
Haile Selassie was restored to his throne by the US in 1941.
False
Siad Barré's clan-based political regime was a viable principal adversary against a more powerful foe during the 1977-1978 war with Ethiopia.
True
The inter-clan political system in Somalia functioned like a presidential system in Western democracies.
False
Ethiopia's behavior in the conflict with Somalia had only one phase.
False
Siad Barré retained power in Somalia by weakening his own clan and constructing alliances with competing clans.
False
What was the primary reason for Somalia's assertion of ownership over five territories in the Horn of Africa?
Somali ethnicity of its pastoral population
What was the outcome of the United Nations trusteeship over former British and Italian Somaliland?
Somalia gained independence
How did the Ogaden War between Ethiopia and Somalia affect Somalia?
It led to Somalia's descent into chaos, disintegration, and civil strife
What was the significance of the five-star national flag of Somalia?
It represented the five territories claimed by Somalia
What was the main characteristic of the Somali political system during the 1977-1978 war with Ethiopia?
It was a clan-based political regime
What was the outcome of the agreement between Somalia and Ethiopia a year after their conflict?
Demilitarization of their border and resumption of diplomatic relations.
What was the primary goal proclaimed by Somalia's constitution?
Unification of all ethnic Somali majority territory.
What was the purpose of Somalia joining the Arab League?
To secure aid and support for its goal of unification.
What was the reaction of Ethiopia to Somalia's claims to ethnic-majority territories?
It secured formal approval of the 'inviolability of state frontiers' as a basic principle of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
What did Somalia perceive as a threatening act by its 'common enemy'?
Ethiopia's military alliance with Kenya.
What territories did Somalia have territorial claims against, according to the East Africa Confrontation?
Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti, and Tanzania
Which superpower supported Somalia in the 1960s and most of the 1970s?
The USSR
What was a major point of contention in the Ogaden Desert between Somalia and Ethiopia?
Access to land and water
What was one of the terms demanded of Somalia by Ethiopia and Kenya?
Renouncing territorial claims and paying reparations to Ethiopia
What was the name of the conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia in 1977-1978?
The Ogaden War
What was the role of clan leaders in Somalia's political system?
Clan leaders were presidents of Somalia, dependent on support from their clan members, and engaged in interclan relations to maximize support and attain political power.
How did Siad Barré retain power in Somalia during his authoritarian rule?
Siad Barré retained power by mobilizing intra-clan support and forming loose alliances with one or more other clans, with ties of kinship and/or shared interests and political goals.
What was the pattern of Ethiopia's behavior in the conflict with Somalia?
Ethiopia's behavior in the conflict with Somalia had two phases, similar to Somalia's behavior.
How did the inter-clan political system in Somalia function?
The inter-clan political system in Somalia functioned like inter-party systems in Western democracies.
What was the significance of Siad Barré's rule in Somalia?
Siad Barré's clan-based political regime was a viable, generally effective principal adversary against a more powerful foe during the 1977-1978 war with Ethiopia.
Study Notes
Ethiopia-Somalia Conflict
- The conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia has a long history, with both countries claiming territories inhabited by ethnic Somalis.
- The rulers of Ethiopia and Kenya called on Somalia to renounce its territorial claims against Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti, and Tanzania, and to pay reparations to Ethiopia for damage caused during the 1977-1978 Ogaden War.
Somalia's Decision-Makers
- There were four phases of decision-making in Somalia: Phase I (1960-1969), Phase II (1969-1991), Phase III (1991-2004), and Phase IV (Islamist War).
- In Phase I, Somalia decided to form the United Republic of Somalia after a 10-year UN trusteeship by the UK and Italy.
- The founders of Somalia sent an irredentist message to Ethiopia and Kenya by issuing a five-star national flag, identifying five territories in the Horn of Africa that Somalia claimed belonged to it.
Political Hostility
- Both Ethiopia and Somalia engaged in frequent hostile political acts, including the approval of Somalia's constitution, which proclaimed the goal of unifying all ethnic Somali majority territory.
- Somalia became a member of the Arab League to secure aid and support for its goals, generating an Ethiopian perception of "enemies at the gates."
- Ethiopia secured formal approval of the "inviolability of state frontiers" as a basic principle of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), pre-empting Somalia's claims to ethnic-majority territories.
Military Alliances
- Ethiopia formed a military alliance with Kenya in 1963, which Somalia perceived as a hostile act.
- Both Ethiopia and Somalia drew the two superpowers into their protracted conflict by securing military equipment and political support from the USA and USSR.
Economic Relations
- The paucity of economic relations between Ethiopia and Somalia meant a virtually non-existent role for economic discrimination in the conflict.
- Somalia emphasized the economic deprivation of the pastoral Somali majority in the Ogaden Desert caused by Ethiopia's denial of unhindered access to land and water.
Leadership
- Presidents of Somalia were clan leaders who engaged in interclan relations to maximize support and attain power.
- Siad Barré, Somalia's authoritarian leader, retained power by mobilizing intra-clan support and loose alignments with other clans.
- Haile Selassie, Ethiopia's long-time ruler, was restored to his throne by the UK in 1941 and dominated the first phase of Ethiopia's behavior in the conflict.
Test your knowledge of the conflicts and territorial disputes between Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Djibouti, and Tanzania, including the Ogaden War. Learn about the historical context and the involvement of superpowers in the region.
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