PSY100 - Midterm

Foundations of Psychology

• Psychology explains general principles governing behavior and acknowledges individual differences.
• Applying psychological principles can improve lives, organizations, and communities.
• Behavior and mental processes are influenced by psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors.
• Our perceptions and biases shape our experiences through a subjective lens.

Assumptions of Western Psychology

• Western psychology emphasizes individuality.
• It relies on experiment-based empiricism.
• Quantification is a key aspect.
• Objectivity is pursued.
• It uses a nomothetic approach.
• Historically, it has shown male dominance.

Beginnings of Experimental Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt formally established experimental psychology in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.
• His approach was known as voluntarism.

Psychological "-isms"

• Structuralism is associated with Edward Titchener.
• Functionalism is linked to William James.
• Behaviorism is represented by John Watson and B.F. Skinner.
• Humanism is championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Scientific Method in Psychology

• The scientific method is an ongoing process.
• It involves making observations, forming questions, developing hypotheses, gathering data, and refining theories.

Role of Theory

• Scientific theories explain relationships between variables.
• Theories are explanatory, predictive, and generative.

Qualities of Scientific Theories

• Must be testable using current research techniques
• Must be falsifiable.
• Should be parsimonious (simple).

Examples of Psychological Theories

• The Intergroup Contact Theory by Pettigrew (1998) suggests positive intergroup contact reduces prejudice.
• The Social Comparison Theory by Festinger (1954) says people evaluate abilities by comparing themselves to similar others.
• The Social Learning Theory by Bandura (1977) explains that people learn by observing others without explicit reinforcement.

Variables in Research

• A variable is a characteristic that changes or has different values for different subjects.
• The independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is measured to see how it’s affected by the independent variable.

Conceptual vs. Operational Definitions

• Conceptual definitions are dictionary or textbook meanings of terms.
• Operational definitions define theoretical constructs in concrete, observable procedures.
• Some variables are easily measured and well-defined.
• Other variables are not well-defined and cannot be directly observed.
• Constructs are internal attributes useful for describing and explaining behavior.

Research Method Categories

• Descriptive methods are concerned with a single variable of interest.
• Correlational methods examine associations between two or more variables.
• Experimental methods examine cause-and-effect relationships.

Descriptive Methods

• Descriptive methods involve systematic observation and classification of behavior.
• Descriptive methods include surveys, focus groups, case studies, and observational studies.

Types of Observations

• Naturalistic observations involve observing behavior without intervention.
• Participant observation involves the researcher actively participating in the situation.
• Laboratory observation involves systematic observations in a controlled setting.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Descriptive Methods

• Strengths include the ability to provide insight and stimulate hypotheses.
• Surveys gather large amounts of data quickly.
• Focus groups provide rich, detailed information.
• Potential problems include reactivity (e.g., the Hawthorne effect), observer bias and self-report bias.

Correlational Methods

• Correlational methods examine relationships between variables.
• They use a single group of participants and at least two measures.
• They allow researchers to make claims about associations between variables.
• Correlation does not equal causation.
• Correlational studies have directionality and third variable problems.
• A strength of correlational methods is that they can be used when it is not possible to manipulate variables.

Experimental Methods

• A variable is is a condition that has different values for different subjects
• Experimental methods manipulate the independent variable to determine its impact on the dependent variable.
• They require tight control, often in a laboratory setting.
• Importance of control because can be affected by confound (anything that may unintentionally vary along with independent variable)
• Participants are randomly assigned to study conditions.
• They are randomly assigned to any condition of the study to ensure ensure the groups are equivalent (necessary)
• Random sample: each member of the chosen population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate
• Experiments can be double-blind in which the participants and experimenters are unaware of condition
• They can be affected by quasi-experiments, and the risk of potential confounds limits researcher's claims to general populations, samples and studies
• Field experiments: can occur in real world settings, such as in field, with or without researcher control or study participation

Thinking Critically about Research

• Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement.
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement.
• Types of reliability include interrater and test-retest reliability.
• Construct validity refers to the validity of the measures used in the study.
• External validity refers to the generalizability of the study.
• Internal validity refers to the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships.

Statistics and Open Science

• Descriptive statistics organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries.
• Descriptive statistics includes percentages, counts, averages, and correlations.
• Inferential statistics allow for extending conclusions from a sample to a population.
• Can measure inferences with study duplications, method usage and data anaysis
• Close/exact replications are replications to a similar replication of a specific phenomenon

Biological Foundations of Behavior

• Twin studies and adoption studies help researchers study genetic vs. environmental impact
• The studies involve monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins, when twins are raised together vs raised apart
• Gene expression relies on nature and nurture which are both very intricately entwined
• Epigenetics are changes in gene expression not due to non-genetic (“epi" =“outer”) influences

Heredity vs. Heritability

• Heredity is the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring
• Heritability estimates the genetic proportion of variation in specific trait or population.
• Heritability accounts for % of variation explained by genetic differences

The Nervous System

• The nervous system the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
• Types of neurons are sensory, motor and innterneurons

Neurons

• Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system
• They operate through electrical impulses
• They communicate with other neurons through chemical signals

Neurons Communicate via Action Potentials

• Action potential is a neural impulse passing along the axon and causes a release of chemicals
• Neurons have a resting potential and are negatively charged = polarized state (-70mV).
• Excitatory signals increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire
• Inhibitory signals decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire
• The Excitatory input (depolarization) reaches certain threshold (-55mV)
• The All-or-none principle: a neuron fires with the same magnitude each time and varies in frequency
• The resting state of a neuron is polarized at rest inside more negative

Neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters are is a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another and are stored inside vesicles, inside terminal buttons
• Presynaptic membrane is the sending membrane neurotransmitter
• Postsynaptic membrane is the memebrane of a recieving neurontransmitt
• Glutamate = primary excitatory neurotransmitter
• GABA = primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
• Serotonin influences the mood, impulsiveness, hunger, and sleep
• Dopamine effects the reward and motivation, and voluntary movement
• Acetylcholine effects movement, memory, cognition, and sleep
• Nor/epinephrine impacts the stress response (“flight or fight")

How Drugs work

• Drugs that acts on a specific neurotransmitter pathway: agonists, antagonists, neuroplacticity

Brainstem

• Brainstem control life sustaining functions via the atonomic nervous system: breathing, digestion, heartbeat
• Reticular formation control the alertness and sleep mechanisms

Limbic System

• The Limbic System controls the hippocampus, the Amygdala: emotion and memory
• The Hippocampus relies on the formation and storage of long-term short-term memory
• Amygdala relies on a known role in processing fear, is essential to the ability of associating with motion

Cerebral Cortex

• Cerebral cortex is outer layer of the brain, divided into the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes:
• The Corpus callosum is a bridge of axons, in controls hemisphere, and allows info to flow between the hemispheres
• The Frontal transmits info for vision, hearing, touch, and all sensory organs that allow communications with external environment (somatic) and autonomic that transmits signals and internal communication

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation involves detection of external stimuli, response to those stimuli, and the transmission of these responses to the brain
• All is experienced via sensory receptors, and are internal representations of the world

Sensation & Perception – Gustation and Olfaction

• Sensing chemicals such as tests consists of 5 basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter & umami/savory
• Smells consists of: Olfactory epithelium (or mucosa) is a thin layer of tissue embedded with smell receptors, which transmit info to olfactory bulb, which is the brain center for smell
• Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC): Receives info from smell, test, and visual systems or Flavour perception which helps the other senses

Sensation & Perception

• The somatosenses: is the sense of temperature, pressure, touch and pain
• Pain: activated by possibly damaging, such as by being pierced/burned/etc

Sensation & Perception

• Motion sensitive neurons causes fatigue that lead certain after effects and sensory perception of waterfall illusion
• Gestalt principles rely on figure-ground relationships where whatever is not the figure is automatically assigned to background
• Bottom up rely on with info relating of from low-level processing areas
• Top-down processing can influence the relationship between low level processing