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Questions and Answers
Which of the following describes hypertrophy?
What is the term for the increase in the number of cells in a tissue?
Which example is associated with metaplasia?
Which of the following instances involves both hypertrophy and hyperplasia?
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Which condition is primarily characterized by the transformation of one cell type to another?
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How many hydrogen bonds are formed between Cytosine and Guanine?
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What is the nature of the DNA structure pertaining to its strands?
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In the DNA sequence provided, what does the '5’' and '3’' indicate?
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What replaces the thymine nucleotides in the mRNA during transcription?
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Which step is NOT part of the transcription process?
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What is formed in the transcription bubble during transcription?
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What type of mutation alters a single nucleotide resulting in a premature stop codon?
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Which component makes up the sides of the DNA ladder?
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Which process describes the conversion of RNA into protein?
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What is the primary function of transcription in the gene expression process?
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What kind of mutation does not change the amino acid sequence of a protein?
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In DNA replication, what is the main role of the phosphodiester bond?
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During transcription, what is the primary product synthesized from the DNA template?
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What structural difference distinguishes ribose from deoxyribose?
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Which statement correctly describes hydrogen bonding in DNA?
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What is the main function of replication in genetic information flow?
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What are the possible outcomes if a mutation is identified but not repaired, and the cell does not undergo apoptosis?
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Which type of mutation does not affect the activity of the protein it encodes?
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What is a characteristic of a missense mutation?
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What is the result of a nonsense mutation?
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What causes mutations to occur in the nucleotide/base sequence of DNA?
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What is the primary function of RNA interference (RNAi)?
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How many pairs of chromosomes does the human genome consist of?
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Which of the following describes homologous chromosomes?
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What defines a somatic cell?
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What is the difference between diploid and haploid cells?
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What is contained in a human genome?
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What is the role of the Human Genome Project?
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What term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
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Study Notes
DNA: Replication and The Central Dogma
- DNA is a double helix resembling a twisted ladder.
- The sides of DNA are composed of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules.
- The rungs of the ladder are pairs of four types of nitrogenous bases.
- DNA is antiparallel: The two strands run in opposite directions.
- Each strand of DNA is complementary to the other: The sequence of one strand can be determined from the other.
- The Central Dogma explains the flow of genetic information in cells.
- DNA replicates, resulting in copies of the original DNA sequence.
- Genetic information is passed from DNA to DNA, preserving and transmitting information between generations.
- DNA's information is expressed into proteins in two steps: transcription and translation.
- Transcription: DNA transcribed into RNA (transcriptome).
- Translation: RNA translated into Protein (proteome).
DNA Structure
- Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is a single-ring pentose sugar with a hydroxyl (-OH) group on the 2' carbon.
- The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
- Adenine pairs with Thymine through two hydrogen bonds.
- Cytosine pairs with Guanine through three hydrogen bonds.
- Phosphodiester Bond: Covalent bond that links the 3’ carbon atom of one sugar molecule to the 5’ carbon atom of another.
- The 3' end of DNA contains a free hydroxyl group, while the 5' end has a phosphate group.
RNA Structure
- Ribose sugar in RNA is a single-ring pentose sugar with a hydroxyl (-OH) group on the 2' carbon.
- The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
- Uracil is only found in RNA and replaces thymine.
- RNA is single-stranded and shorter than DNA.
Gene Expression and Transcription
- Transcription: The process of copying a DNA sequence into mRNA.
- The DNA double helix unwinds near the gene being transcribed, forming a transcription bubble.
- Transcription occurs in three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
- Transcription uses one of the two DNA strands as a template, creating an RNA sequence that is complementary to it.
- The template strand is also called the non-coding strand.
- RNA polymerase: The enzyme that synthesizes RNA using the template strand.
- RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region on the DNA, signaling the start of transcription.
- Transcription continues until RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence, signaling the end of transcription.
- Post-transcriptional modification: The newly transcribed RNA molecule undergoes modifications, such as splicing and capping, before it can be translated into protein.
RNA Interference
- RNA interference (RNAi): A process by which short RNA molecules interfere with gene expression.
- Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs): Short RNA molecules that bind to complementary sequences in mRNA and tag it for degradation.
Human Genome
- The human genome is the complete set of genetic material in a human cell.
- It consists of approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs.
- The human genome is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
- Autosomal chromosomes: The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes.
- Sex chromosomes: The pair of chromosomes that determine sex (XX for female, XY for male).
- Homologous chromosomes: Pairs of chromosomes that contain the same genes, but with potentially different alleles.
- Somatic cells: All body cells except reproductive cells.
- Gametes: Reproductive cells (sperm and egg).
- Diploid (2n): Having two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent).
- Haploid (n): Having one set of chromosomes.
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
- Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism.
Cell Cycle
- Cell cycle: The series of events that a cell goes through from its formation to its division into two daughter cells.
Mutations
- A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.
- Mutations can occur due to errors in DNA replication or damage caused by environmental factors.
- Mutations can alter the amino acid sequence of protein, potentially affecting its function.
- Mutations can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
Point Mutations
- Point mutation: A change in a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence.
- Silent mutation: A point mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence of the protein.
- Missense mutation: A point mutation that changes the amino acid sequence of the protein.
- Nonsense mutation: A point mutation that introduces a premature stop codon into the mRNA sequence, resulting in a truncated protein.
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Description
Explore the intricate structure of DNA and the processes of replication and the Central Dogma. This quiz covers the key concepts of how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins, as well as the relationship between DNA strands. Test your understanding of transcription and translation as fundamental steps in expressing genetic information.