Diuretics and Nephron Function

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary mechanism of calcium reabsorption in the tubule?

Passage through a channel and then transported by a Na+/Ca2+ exchanger into the interstitial fluid (correct)

Passage through a channel and then transported by a Ca2+/Na+ exchanger into the interstitial fluid

Passage through a channel and then transported by a K+/Ca2+ exchanger into the interstitial fluid

Passage through a channel and then transported by a Na+/K+-ATPase pump into the interstitial fluid

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

Thiazide diuretics increase urinary calcium excretion

Thiazide diuretics decrease urinary calcium excretion (correct)

Thiazide diuretics have a variable effect on urinary calcium excretion

Thiazide diuretics have no effect on urinary calcium excretion

Which of the following is NOT a therapeutic use of thiazide diuretics?

Diabetes insipidus (correct)

Hypertension

Heart failure

Nephrotic syndrome

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on potassium levels?

Thiazide diuretics decrease potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a thiazide-like diuretic?

Chlorthalidone Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of thiazide diuretics?

Inhibition of a Na+/Cl− cotransporter Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on peripheral vascular resistance?

Thiazide diuretics decrease peripheral vascular resistance Signup and view all the answers

Why are thiazide diuretics sometimes called “low ceiling diuretics”?

Because increasing the dose above normal therapeutic doses does not promote further diuretic response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a consequence of chronic use of thiazide diuretics in elderly patients?

Magnesium deficiency Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of loop diuretics in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

Inhibition of the cotransport of Na+/K+/2Cl− Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics?

Producing a hyperosmolar urine Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

Increase urinary calcium excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of idiopathic hypercalciuria?

To inhibit urinary Ca2+ excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on serum potassium levels?

Decrease serum potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on left ventricular filling pressures?

Decrease left ventricular filling pressures Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the pharmacokinetics of thiazide and loop diuretics?

Thiazides take weeks to produce a stable reduction in blood pressure, while loop diuretics act rapidly Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of loop diuretics in the treatment of heart failure?

To reduce extracellular volume Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on serum uric acid levels?

Increase serum uric acid levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the structure that filters the blood entering the kidneys?

Glomerulus Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the filtered sodium is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule?

Two-thirds Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pump in the proximal convoluted tubule?

To maintain normal levels of sodium and potassium in the cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the ascending loop of Henle?

It is impermeable to water Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of active reabsorption of Na+, K+, and Cl− in the ascending loop of Henle?

Na+/K+/2Cl− cotransporter Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the distal convoluted tubule?

It is impermeable to water Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of reabsorption of sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule?

Na+/Cl− transporter Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of diuretics on the organic acid secretory system?

They compete with organic acids for transfer Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of diuretics?

Drugs that increase the volume of urine Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of spironolactone on androgen levels in polycystic ovary syndrome?

Blocks androgen receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common side effect of spironolactone?

Hyperkalemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of triamterene and amiloride?

Blockage of Na+ transport channels Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of acetazolamide on phosphate excretion?

Increased phosphate excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the therapeutic use of acetazolamide in altitude sickness?

Prevention of symptoms of altitude sickness Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of osmotic diuretics?

Increase in urinary osmolarity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of osmotic diuretics?

Maintenance of urine flow in acute renal failure Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of acetazolamide on urinary pH?

Increase in urinary pH Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of spironolactone on potassium levels?

Increase in potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary indication for the use of loop diuretics in edema?

Pulmonary edema and acute/chronic peripheral edema caused by heart failure or renal impairment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following adverse effects is associated with the use of ethacrynic acid?

Ototoxicity Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of spironolactone in the collecting tubule?

Inhibiting aldosterone at intracellular cytoplasmic receptor sites Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of spironolactone on Na+ and K+ in edematous states?

Retention of K+ and excretion of Na+ Signup and view all the answers

What is the therapeutic use of spironolactone in patients with hepatic cirrhosis?

Treatment of edema associated with secondary hyperaldosteronism Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary Ca2+ excretion?

Increase Ca2+ excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary indication for the use of aldosterone antagonists in heart failure?

To prevent myocardial remodeling mediated by aldosterone Signup and view all the answers

What is the adverse effect of loop diuretics that can be corrected by oral supplementation?

Hypomagnesemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of potassium-sparing diuretics on Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion in the collecting tubule?

Inhibit Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pump in the proximal convoluted tubule?

To maintain normal levels of Na+ and K+ in the cell Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate along the descending portion of the loop of Henle?

It increases Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the organic acid secretory system in the proximal convoluted tubule?

To secrete organic acids like uric acid Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of diuretic drugs on the organic acid secretory system?

They compete with organic acids for transfer Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the ascending loop of Henle?

It is impermeable to water and reabsorbs Na+, K+, and Cl− Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of reabsorption of sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule?

Via a Na+/Cl− transporter Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the blood entering the kidneys is filtered into Bowman's capsule?

16-20% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule?

To reabsorb sodium chloride Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule in the renal corpuscle?

To filter the blood entering the kidneys Signup and view all the answers

What is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?

To produce a hyperosmolar urine Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on left ventricular filling pressures?

Decrease left ventricular filling pressures Signup and view all the answers

What is a common adverse effect of thiazide diuretics?

Hypokalemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of loop diuretics in the treatment of heart failure?

To reduce extracellular volume Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of loop diuretics in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

Inhibition of the cotransport of Na+/K+/2Cl− Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the dose-response curve of loop diuretics?

A sigmoidal (S-shaped) dose-response curve Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential adverse effect of thiazide diuretics?

Hypercalcemia Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of idiopathic hypercalciuria?

To decrease urinary calcium excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

Increase urinary calcium excretion Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following mechanisms is responsible for the regulation of Ca2+ excretion in the collecting tubule and duct?

Regulation by parathyroid hormone Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of thiazide diuretics?

They are inexpensive and well tolerated Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a consequence of the mechanism of action of thiazide diuretics?

Decreased Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on the body's potassium levels?

They decrease K+ levels in the body Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics?

They decrease urinary calcium excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of thiazide-like diuretics?

Inhibition of the Na+/Cl- cotransporter Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a therapeutic use of thiazide diuretics?

Mild to moderate essential hypertension Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on peripheral vascular resistance?

They decrease peripheral vascular resistance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of thiazide diuretics?

They have a low ceiling of effect Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of spironolactone on androgen levels in polycystic ovary syndrome?

Blocks androgen receptors and inhibits steroid synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following diuretics does not require the presence of aldosterone for its action?

Triamterene Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of acetazolamide on urinary pH?

Markedly elevates urinary pH Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of osmotic diuretics?

To maintain urine flow following acute toxic ingestion of substances Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a side effect of triamterene?

Increased uric acid Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of spironolactone in the collecting tubule?

Inhibits aldosterone receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of acetazolamide on phosphate excretion?

Unknown mechanism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following diuretics is used in the prophylaxis of altitude sickness?

Acetazolamide Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of spironolactone on potassium levels?

Increases potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of loop diuretics in the treatment of hypercalcemia?

Stimulation of tubular Ca2+ secretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the adverse effect of loop diuretics that is associated with the use of aminoglycoside?

Ototoxicity Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of potassium-sparing diuretics on the collecting tubule?

Inhibition of Na+ reabsorption and stimulation of K+ excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary indication for the use of aldosterone antagonists in patients with heart failure?

Prevention of myocardial remodeling Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of loop diuretics on blood volume?

Decrease in blood volume Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of spironolactone in the collecting tubule?

Antagonism of aldosterone at intracellular cytoplasmic receptor sites Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of aldosterone antagonists on potassium levels in edematous states?

Increase in potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the therapeutic use of spironolactone in patients with hepatic cirrhosis?

Treatment of edema associated with secondary hyperaldosteronism Signup and view all the answers

What is the adverse effect of loop diuretics that can be corrected by oral supplementation?

Hypomagnesemia Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nephron and Diuretics

The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney, composed of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule.
Diuretics are drugs that increase the volume of urine.

Normal Regulation of Fluid and Electrolytes by the Kidneys

About 16% to 20% of the blood entering the kidneys is filtered from the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule.
The filtrate contains glucose, sodium bicarbonate, amino acids, and other organic solutes, as well as electrolytes such as Na+, K+, and Cl−.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Most of the glucose, bicarbonate, and amino acids are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
Approximately two-thirds of the Na+ is also reabsorbed.
Water passes passively from the lumen to the blood to maintain osmolar equality.

Descending and Ascending Loops of Henle

The osmolarity increases along the descending portion of the loop of Henle due to water reabsorption.
The ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to water, and active reabsorption of Na+, K+, and Cl− is mediated by a Na+/K+/2Cl− cotransporter.

Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Tubule

The distal convoluted tubule is also impermeable to water.
About 10% of the filtered sodium chloride is reabsorbed via a Na+/Cl− transporter.
Calcium reabsorption is mediated by passage through a channel and then transported by a Na+/Ca2+ exchanger into the interstitial fluid.

Thiazides

Thiazides affect the distal convoluted tubule and have equal maximum diuretic effects.
They are sometimes called "low ceiling diuretics."
Examples include chlorothiazide, hydrochlorothiazide, and chlorthalidone.

Mechanism of Action of Thiazides

Thiazides act mainly in the distal convoluted tubule to decrease the reabsorption of Na+.
They inhibit a Na+/Cl− cotransporter on the luminal membrane of the tubules.

Actions of Thiazides

Increased excretion of Na+ and Cl−.
Loss of K+ and Mg2+.
Decreased urinary calcium excretion.
Reduced peripheral vascular resistance.

Therapeutic Uses of Thiazides

Hypertension.
Heart failure.
Hypercalciuria.
Diabetes insipidus.

Adverse Effects of Thiazides

Hypokalemia.
Hypomagnesemia.
Hyponatremia.
Hyperuricemia.
Hypovolemia.
Hypercalcemia.
Hyperglycemia.

Loop Diuretics

Loop diuretics act on the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
They have the highest efficacy in mobilizing Na+ and Cl− from the body.
Examples include furosemide, bumetanide, torsemide, and ethacrynic acid.

Mechanism of Action of Loop Diuretics

Loop diuretics inhibit the cotransport of Na+/K+/2Cl− in the luminal membrane in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.

Actions of Loop Diuretics

Diuresis.
Venodilation.
Increased urinary calcium excretion.

Therapeutic Uses of Loop Diuretics

Edema.
Hypercalcemia.
Hyperkalemia.

Adverse Effects of Loop Diuretics

Ototoxicity.
Hyperuricemia.
Acute hypovolemia.
Potassium depletion.
Hypomagnesemia.

Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Potassium-sparing diuretics act in the collecting tubule to inhibit Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion.
Examples include spironolactone and eplerenone.

Mechanism of Action of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Spironolactone antagonizes aldosterone at intracellular cytoplasmic receptor sites.

Actions of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

In most edematous states, blood levels of aldosterone are high, causing retention of Na+.
Spironolactone antagonizes the activity of aldosterone, resulting in retention of K+ and excretion of Na+.

Therapeutic Uses of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Edema.
Hypokalemia.
Heart failure.
Resistant hypertension.
Polycystic ovary syndrome.

Adverse Effects of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Hyperkalemia.
Gynecomastia.

Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor

Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that is used for its other pharmacologic actions than for its diuretic effect.
Mechanism of action: inhibits carbonic anhydrase located intracellularly and on the apical membrane of the proximal tubular epithelium.

Therapeutic Uses of Acetazolamide

Glaucoma.
Altitude sickness.

Osmotic Diuretics

Osmotic diuretics are used to increase water excretion rather than Na+ excretion.
Examples include mannitol and urea.
They are used to maintain urine flow following acute toxic ingestion of substances capable of producing acute renal failure.

Nephron and Diuretics

The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney, composed of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule.
Diuretics are drugs that increase the volume of urine.

Normal Regulation of Fluid and Electrolytes by the Kidneys

About 16% to 20% of the blood entering the kidneys is filtered from the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule.
The filtrate contains glucose, sodium bicarbonate, amino acids, and other organic solutes, as well as electrolytes such as Na+, K+, and Cl−.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Most of the glucose, bicarbonate, and amino acids are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
Approximately two-thirds of the Na+ is also reabsorbed.
Water passes passively from the lumen to the blood to maintain osmolar equality.

Descending and Ascending Loops of Henle

The osmolarity increases along the descending portion of the loop of Henle due to water reabsorption.
The ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to water, and active reabsorption of Na+, K+, and Cl− is mediated by a Na+/K+/2Cl− cotransporter.

Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Tubule

The distal convoluted tubule is also impermeable to water.
About 10% of the filtered sodium chloride is reabsorbed via a Na+/Cl− transporter.
Calcium reabsorption is mediated by passage through a channel and then transported by a Na+/Ca2+ exchanger into the interstitial fluid.

Thiazides

Thiazides affect the distal convoluted tubule and have equal maximum diuretic effects.
They are sometimes called "low ceiling diuretics."
Examples include chlorothiazide, hydrochlorothiazide, and chlorthalidone.

Mechanism of Action of Thiazides

Thiazides act mainly in the distal convoluted tubule to decrease the reabsorption of Na+.
They inhibit a Na+/Cl− cotransporter on the luminal membrane of the tubules.

Actions of Thiazides

Increased excretion of Na+ and Cl−.
Loss of K+ and Mg2+.
Decreased urinary calcium excretion.
Reduced peripheral vascular resistance.

Therapeutic Uses of Thiazides

Hypertension.
Heart failure.
Hypercalciuria.
Diabetes insipidus.

Adverse Effects of Thiazides

Hypokalemia.
Hypomagnesemia.
Hyponatremia.
Hyperuricemia.
Hypovolemia.
Hypercalcemia.
Hyperglycemia.

Loop Diuretics

Loop diuretics act on the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
They have the highest efficacy in mobilizing Na+ and Cl− from the body.
Examples include furosemide, bumetanide, torsemide, and ethacrynic acid.

Mechanism of Action of Loop Diuretics

Loop diuretics inhibit the cotransport of Na+/K+/2Cl− in the luminal membrane in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.

Actions of Loop Diuretics

Diuresis.
Venodilation.
Increased urinary calcium excretion.

Therapeutic Uses of Loop Diuretics

Edema.
Hypercalcemia.
Hyperkalemia.

Adverse Effects of Loop Diuretics

Ototoxicity.
Hyperuricemia.
Acute hypovolemia.
Potassium depletion.
Hypomagnesemia.

Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Potassium-sparing diuretics act in the collecting tubule to inhibit Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion.
Examples include spironolactone and eplerenone.

Mechanism of Action of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Spironolactone antagonizes aldosterone at intracellular cytoplasmic receptor sites.

Actions of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

In most edematous states, blood levels of aldosterone are high, causing retention of Na+.
Spironolactone antagonizes the activity of aldosterone, resulting in retention of K+ and excretion of Na+.

Therapeutic Uses of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Edema.
Hypokalemia.
Heart failure.
Resistant hypertension.
Polycystic ovary syndrome.

Adverse Effects of Potassium-Sparing Diuretics

Hyperkalemia.
Gynecomastia.

Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor

Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that is used for its other pharmacologic actions than for its diuretic effect.
Mechanism of action: inhibits carbonic anhydrase located intracellularly and on the apical membrane of the proximal tubular epithelium.

Therapeutic Uses of Acetazolamide

Glaucoma.
Altitude sickness.

Osmotic Diuretics

Osmotic diuretics are used to increase water excretion rather than Na+ excretion.
Examples include mannitol and urea.
They are used to maintain urine flow following acute toxic ingestion of substances capable of producing acute renal failure.

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Learn about the structure and function of nephrons, the microscopic units of the kidney, and how diuretics affect the volume of urine. Understand the normal regulation of fluid and electrolytes by the kidneys.

Diuretics and Nephron Function

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary mechanism of calcium reabsorption in the tubule?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

Which of the following is NOT a therapeutic use of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on potassium levels?

Which of the following is a thiazide-like diuretic?

What is the mechanism of action of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on peripheral vascular resistance?

Why are thiazide diuretics sometimes called “low ceiling diuretics”?

Which of the following is a consequence of chronic use of thiazide diuretics in elderly patients?

What is the primary mechanism of action of loop diuretics in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

Which of the following is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

What is the primary use of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of idiopathic hypercalciuria?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on serum potassium levels?

What is the effect of loop diuretics on left ventricular filling pressures?

What is the primary difference between the pharmacokinetics of thiazide and loop diuretics?

What is the primary use of loop diuretics in the treatment of heart failure?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on serum uric acid levels?

What is the name of the structure that filters the blood entering the kidneys?

What percentage of the filtered sodium is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule?

What is the purpose of the Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pump in the proximal convoluted tubule?

What is the characteristic of the ascending loop of Henle?

What is the mechanism of active reabsorption of Na+, K+, and Cl− in the ascending loop of Henle?

What is the characteristic of the distal convoluted tubule?

What is the mechanism of reabsorption of sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule?

What is the effect of diuretics on the organic acid secretory system?

What is the definition of diuretics?

What is the primary effect of spironolactone on androgen levels in polycystic ovary syndrome?

What is the most common side effect of spironolactone?

What is the mechanism of action of triamterene and amiloride?

What is the effect of acetazolamide on phosphate excretion?

What is the therapeutic use of acetazolamide in altitude sickness?

What is the mechanism of action of osmotic diuretics?

What is the primary use of osmotic diuretics?

What is the effect of acetazolamide on urinary pH?

What is the effect of spironolactone on potassium levels?

What is the primary indication for the use of loop diuretics in edema?

Which of the following adverse effects is associated with the use of ethacrynic acid?

What is the mechanism of action of spironolactone in the collecting tubule?

What is the effect of spironolactone on Na+ and K+ in edematous states?

What is the therapeutic use of spironolactone in patients with hepatic cirrhosis?

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary Ca2+ excretion?

What is the primary indication for the use of aldosterone antagonists in heart failure?

What is the adverse effect of loop diuretics that can be corrected by oral supplementation?

What is the effect of potassium-sparing diuretics on Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion in the collecting tubule?

What is the primary function of the Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pump in the proximal convoluted tubule?

What happens to the osmolarity of the filtrate along the descending portion of the loop of Henle?

What is the purpose of the organic acid secretory system in the proximal convoluted tubule?

What is the effect of diuretic drugs on the organic acid secretory system?

What is the characteristic of the ascending loop of Henle?

What is the mechanism of reabsorption of sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule?

What percentage of the blood entering the kidneys is filtered into Bowman's capsule?

What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule?

What is the purpose of the cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule in the renal corpuscle?

What is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?

What is the effect of loop diuretics on left ventricular filling pressures?

What is a common adverse effect of thiazide diuretics?

What is the primary use of loop diuretics in the treatment of heart failure?

What is the mechanism of action of loop diuretics in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

What is a characteristic of the dose-response curve of loop diuretics?

What is a potential adverse effect of thiazide diuretics?

What is the primary use of thiazide diuretics in the treatment of idiopathic hypercalciuria?

What is the effect of loop diuretics on urinary calcium excretion?

Which of the following mechanisms is responsible for the regulation of Ca2+ excretion in the collecting tubule and duct?

Which of the following is a characteristic of thiazide diuretics?

Which of the following is a consequence of the mechanism of action of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on the body's potassium levels?

Which of the following is a unique ability of thiazide diuretics?

What is the mechanism of action of thiazide-like diuretics?

Which of the following is a therapeutic use of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of thiazide diuretics on peripheral vascular resistance?

Which of the following is a characteristic of thiazide diuretics?

What is the effect of spironolactone on androgen levels in polycystic ovary syndrome?

Which of the following diuretics does not require the presence of aldosterone for its action?

What is the effect of acetazolamide on urinary pH?

What is the primary use of osmotic diuretics?