Foundation part 2
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Questions and Answers

Which route of drug administration involves the use of a patch?

  • Intramuscular (IM)
  • Transdermal (correct)
  • Subcutaneous (SC)
  • Intravenous (IV)

    • Which route of drug administration is rarely used in humans?

  • Oral
  • Sublingual
  • Intravenous (IV)
  • Intraperitoneal (IP) (correct)

    • Which route of drug administration involves the use of drops?

  • Rectal
  • Inhalation
  • Oral
  • Topical (correct)

    • Which route of drug administration involves injecting the drug into a muscle?

    <p>IV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which route of drug administration involves placing the drug under the tongue?

    <p>Sublingual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which route of drug administration is NOT the same as oral administration?

    <p>Sublingual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is the main site of drug absorption?

    <p>Small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor can decrease drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>Gut motility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor can affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>Gut pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>Age, gender, genetic polymorphism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can lead to poor drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>Strong acid or base conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of drug absorption?

    <p>Active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drugs are more likely to be absorbed through passive transport via diffusion?

    <p>Lipid-soluble drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about membrane transportation is correct?

    <p>The lipophilicity of the drug affects its membrane permeability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of drugs has good membrane permeability?

    <p>Unionised form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor affects the permeability of drugs through the membrane?

    <p>pH of the surrounding environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of drugs is more easily absorbed in acidic conditions?

    <p>Unionised form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of drugs is more easily absorbed in alkaline conditions?

    <p>Ionised form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are drugs distributed in the body?

    <p>They randomly meet with their targets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can affect the rate of drug distribution in the body?

    <p>Blood perfusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can affect the extent of drug distribution in the body?

    <p>Availability of drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drugs are more likely to distribute faster in the body?

    <p>Membrane permeable drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the most important plasma protein that binds with acidic and some basic drugs?

    <p>Albumin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of drug binding is reversible between the free and protein-bound form?

    <p>99%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of the drug is pharmacologically active and can freely bind with its targets to exert its effects?

    <p>Free form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ contains drug metabolizing enzymes that can contribute to the first-pass metabolism?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary route of drug excretion from the body?

    <p>Urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does first-pass metabolism have on drug bioavailability?

    <p>Reduces drug bioavailability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can affect the extent of first-pass metabolism?

    <p>The route of administration and the drug dose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the drug level and bioavailability during first-pass metabolism?

    <p>The drug level decreases and bioavailability decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of drug metabolizing enzymes in first-pass metabolism?

    <p>They metabolize a portion of the drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is the primary site for drug metabolism?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main objective of drug metabolism?

    <p>To enhance drug hydrophilicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two stages of drug metabolism?

    <p>Phase 1 and Phase 2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reaction in Phase 1 metabolism involves the addition of a new -OH group directly?

    <p>Hydroxylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of reaction in Phase 1 metabolism?

    <p>Reduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following enzymes is responsible for glucuronidation in Phase 2 metabolism?

    <p>UDP-glucuronyltransferase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which products of Phase 2 metabolism are ready to be excreted in urine?

    <p>Water-soluble products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During drug overdose, what happens to Phase 2 metabolism?

    <p>It becomes saturated at its highest capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a major excretion system for drugs?

    <p>Lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary route of drug excretion from the body?

    <p>Kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is enterohepatic circulation?

    <p>The process of drug reabsorption to the portal and systemic circulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is the most effective for drug elimination in the kidneys?

    <p>Active tubular secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors can affect active tubular secretion of drugs?

    <p>Competition and inhibition of transporters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the kidney is mainly responsible for tubular reabsorption of lipophilic drugs?

    <p>Distal tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug target can be bound by an agonist to activate its action?

    <p>Receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug target can be bound by an antagonist to block the action of an agonist?

    <p>Receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug target can be inhibited by a drug to act as a false substrate?

    <p>Enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary objective of drug metabolism?

    <p>To convert drugs into inactive or less active forms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug target is associated with ligand-gated ion channels?

    <p>Ion channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of dose-response curve is used to measure the response of a single model, such as cells or animals, to the concentration or dose of an agonist?

    <p>Graded dose-response curve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the half-maximal effective dose (ED50) represent in a graded dose-response curve?

    <p>The concentration or dose of an agonist that produces 50% of the maximum effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the response of a drug after it reaches its maximal effect in a dose-response relationship?

    <p>The response remains the same despite higher doses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes affinity in relation to drug binding?

    <p>Affinity refers to the strength of a drug binding to a receptor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) calculated to determine drug affinity?

    <p>By measuring the percentage of receptor occupied vs dose of drug.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a smaller Kd value indicate about drug affinity?

    <p>A smaller Kd value indicates greater affinity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of calculating the ED50 of a drug?

    <p>To assess the potency of the drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about drug potency?

    <p>Maximal effect (EMAX) of the drug is always 100%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is used to determine the efficacy of a drug?

    <p>Comparing the Emax from a graph of graded dose-response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between a full agonist and a partial agonist?

    <p>Full agonists have higher efficacy and can produce a maximal response, while partial agonists have lower efficacy and cannot produce a maximal response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the meaning of Emax in the context of drug efficacy?

    <p>The maximum effect that a drug can achieve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of antagonist binds at a different site of the receptor, mostly permanently, and cannot be overcome by increasing agonist concentration?

    <p>Non-competitive antagonist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the presence of a competitive antagonist have on the potency of agonists?

    <p>Decreases potency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of antagonist competes with agonists for binding at the agonist recognition site reversibly?

    <p>Competitive antagonist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about drug selectivity is correct?

    <p>A selective drug can differentiate between different targets.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about drug specificity is correct?

    <p>Specificity refers to the number of different mechanisms involved in a drug's action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about drug selectivity and specificity is correct?

    <p>Specificity refers to a drug's ability to differentiate between different targets.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines the therapeutic index?

    <p>The ratio of the amount of a therapeutic agent that causes the therapeutic effect to the amount that causes toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about drugs with a low therapeutic index is true?

    <p>They can be difficult to use unless therapeutic dose monitoring is in operation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the importance of the therapeutic window and index in indicating a drug's safety?

    <p>A larger value of therapeutic index or therapeutic window indicates a safer drug to use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of drug desensitization?

    <p>Higher number of receptors in production or receptor internalization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes tolerance in relation to drug response?

    <p>The need for a higher dose to produce the same magnitude of response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between tolerance and molecular desensitization?

    <p>Tolerance refers to altered drug metabolism, while molecular desensitization refers to the reduction in drug response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pathways can lead to tolerance?

    <p>Both pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell-cell communication involves the release of chemical messengers (hormones) into the circulatory system to signal distant cells?

    <p>Endocrine signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell-cell communication signals adjacent cells or communicates with the cell next to it using chemical messengers (cytokines, chemokines)?

    <p>Paracrine signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cell-cell communication signals a cell via chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) in the synapse?

    <p>Synaptic signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about steroid hormones is correct?

    <p>Steroid hormones can freely cross the cell membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the release of steroid hormones into the blood circulation?

    <p>The rate of steroid hormone release is correlated to its synthesis rate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hormone-receptor complex in steroid hormone action?

    <p>It serves as a transcription factor to activate gene transcription.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about peptide hormones?

    <p>Peptide hormones are stored in secretory vesicles in the cytoplasm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cAMP in peptide hormone signaling?

    <p>cAMP is a secondary messenger that activates protein/enzymes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is associated with steroid hormones?

    <p>Nuclear receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of response is characteristic of peptide hormones?

    <p>Fast but transient response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which signaling pathway is activated by peptide hormones?

    <p>cAMP production &amp; protein phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of control involves the release of a hormone in response to stimulation from another hormone?

    <p>Trophic control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of a negative feedback loop in hormone regulation?

    <p>To suppress the stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of feedback loop occurs less commonly but is essential in certain processes?

    <p>Positive feedback loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the pituitary gland is responsible for storing and secreting oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones?

    <p>Posterior lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the pituitary gland synthesizes and releases growth hormone (GH) and prolactin as direct acting hormones?

    <p>Anterior lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland regulates and controls the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone from the anterior pituitary gland targets the bone, liver, and adipose tissue?

    <p>GH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone from the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for the secretion of cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens?

    <p>ACTH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone from the posterior pituitary gland is involved in uterus contraction during labor and milk production?

    <p>Oxytocin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of hormones is synthesized from cholesterol?

    <p>Steroid hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of hormones does not require plasma protein for transportation?

    <p>Peptide hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptors are involved in rapid and transient actions of hormones?

    <p>Cell surface receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormone binds with intracellular receptors?

    <p>Steroid hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone serves as a vehicle for hydrophilic hormones that need plasma protein?

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland produces melatonin?

    <p>Pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the release of peptide hormones is correct?

    <p>Peptide hormones are stored in secretory vesicles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the release of amino-acid hormones?

    <p>Amino-acid hormones are released into blood circulation by simple diffusion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a requirement for the release of steroid hormones?

    <p>Steroid hormones are stored in secretory vesicles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormone is released into blood circulation by simple diffusion?

    <p>Steroid hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are peptide hormones released from storage when needed?

    <p>Exocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormone synthesis involves iodination of tyrosine residues?

    <p>Thyroid Hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the adrenal gland produces glucocorticoids?

    <p>Adrenal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is mainly regulated by ACTH?

    <p>Glucocorticoids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which zone of the adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone?

    <p>Glomerulosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disease is characterized by high levels of glucocorticoid (cortisol)?

    <p>Cushing syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adrenal disease is mainly caused by autoimmune factors?

    <p>Adrenal insufficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adrenal disease is characterized by high levels of mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)?

    <p>Hyperaldosteronism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type in the brain is responsible for myelinating the cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

    <p>Oligodendrocyte</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of astrocytes in the brain?

    <p>Structure support for the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of microglial cells in the brain?

    <p>Act as immune cells and respond to injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is both excitatory and inhibitory?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is excitatory via D1 receptors and inhibitory via D2 receptors?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neuropeptide is excitatory?

    <p>Substance P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion(s) experience increased conductance in the post-synaptic cell when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors?

    <p>Na+ and K+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens if the threshold is reached in the post-synaptic cell?

    <p>Generation of action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) on the post-synaptic neurone?

    <p>Hyperpolarisation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ions are typically let through by neurotransmitter receptors?

    <p>Sodium, chloride, and potassium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is generally considered inhibitory?

    <p>GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What leads to changes within the cell to cause a biological response after neurotransmitter activation?

    <p>Signal transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of receptors allows selective movement of ions and is faster in transmitting signals?

    <p>Ionotropic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major neurotransmitter of the nervous system?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of acetylcholine?

    <p>Acetyl-Co A</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor is activated by acetylcholine to cause depolarization in the post-synaptic cell?

    <p>Nicotinic ionotropic receptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the breakdown of acetylcholine?

    <p>Hydrolyze ACh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the product of the breakdown of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)?

    <p>Acetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about myelin is correct?

    <p>Myelin is a substance that helps to transmit electrical signals along the axon of a neuron.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the speed of electrical signal transmission when myelin is present?

    <p>The speed of electrical signal transmission increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are responsible for producing myelin in the central nervous system?

    <p>Oligodendrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cells has a more negative resting membrane potential?

    <p>Skeletal Muscle Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers action potentials in excitable cells like muscle and nerve cells?

    <p>Stimulus that alters the resting membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What maintains the concentration gradient across a cell membrane?

    <p>Sodium potassium pump</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion plays a major role in generating the resting membrane potential?

    <p>Potassium (K+)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate value of the resting membrane potential?

    <p>-70mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Gibbs and Donnan equilibrium in the resting membrane potential?

    <p>They generate a negative charge inside cells with respect to outside</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion(s) experience increased conductance during the generation and conductance of an action potential?

    <p>VG Na+ open</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential difference during the after-depolarisation phase of an action potential?

    <p>+35 mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the period of time between the stimulus and the generation of an action potential?

    <p>Latent period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the generation and conductance of an action potential?

    <p>The local currents drawn to the area of positive charge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of myelin insulator in saltatory conduction?

    <p>It increases the conduction velocity of the action potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion channels open first during the initiation of an action potential?

    <p>Sodium (Na+)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion(s) experience increased conductance in the post-synaptic cell when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors?

    <p>Na+ and K+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the process of neurotransmitter release at a terminal bouton?

    <p>Generation of an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens if the threshold for an action potential is reached in the post-synaptic cell?

    <p>An action potential is generated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system processes, interprets, and stores information, as well as issues orders for motor control of muscles and glands?

    <p>Central nervous system (CNS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

    <p>12 pairs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the spinal cord in the nervous system?

    <p>To connect between the brain and spinal nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which division of the nervous system regulates the contraction of skeletal muscles?

    <p>Somatic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for an emergency?

    <p>Sympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for conserving and restoring energy?

    <p>Parasympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fibers of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) convey neural impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system (CNS)?

    <p>Afferent fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fibers of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) convey neural impulses from the CNS to the effector organs?

    <p>Efferent fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) derived from?

    <p>Spinal nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the meninges is inseparable from the surface of the spinal cord?

    <p>Pia mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the collection of spinal nerve roots that extend inferiorly beyond the termination of the spinal cord?

    <p>Cauda equina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the meninges forms a sheath around the spinal cord and extends from the foramen magnum to the lower border of the second sacral (S2) vertebra?

    <p>Dura mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres?

    <p>Forebrain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain remains after the removal of the forebrain and cerebellum?

    <p>Midbrain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which meninges surround and protect the brain?

    <p>Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for balance and coordination?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the brain is associated with motor function?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brainstem controls respiratory and cardiac function?

    <p>Medulla oblongata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of meninges covers the spinal cord closest to the bone?

    <p>Dura mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nerve root contains motor fibers?

    <p>Anterior (ventral) nerve root</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the structures connected by the corpus callosum?

    <p>Cerebral hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system is responsible for the collection of nerve cell bodies within the CNS?

    <p>Spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the structure that continues as a thread-like structure called filum terminale below the spinal cord?

    <p>Intervertebral foramina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At which vertebral level does the spinal cord commonly terminate in adults?

    <p>L1-L2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain invests the spinal cord closely and continues as a thread-like structure called filum terminale below the spinal cord?

    <p>Pia mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the collection of nerve cell bodies called within the central nervous system (CNS)?

    <p>Nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the spinal cord commonly terminate in adults?

    <p>At the vertebral level of L1-L2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain separates the frontal lobe from the parietal and temporal lobes?

    <p>Central sulcus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three layers of meninges that cover the spinal cord called?

    <p>Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two nerve roots that initially arise from the spinal cord?

    <p>Anterior and posterior nerve roots</p> Signup and view all the answers

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