Foundation part 2

Which route of drug administration involves the use of a patch?

Which route of drug administration is rarely used in humans?

Which route of drug administration involves the use of drops?

Which route of drug administration involves injecting the drug into a muscle?

Which route of drug administration involves placing the drug under the tongue?

Which route of drug administration is NOT the same as oral administration?

Which organ is the main site of drug absorption?

Which factor can decrease drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

Which factor can affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

Which of the following factors can affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

Which of the following can lead to poor drug absorption in the gastrointestinal tract?

Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of drug absorption?

Which type of drugs are more likely to be absorbed through passive transport via diffusion?

Which of the following statements about membrane transportation is correct?

Which form of drugs has good membrane permeability?

Which factor affects the permeability of drugs through the membrane?

Which form of drugs is more easily absorbed in acidic conditions?

Which form of drugs is more easily absorbed in alkaline conditions?

How are drugs distributed in the body?

Which of the following factors can affect the rate of drug distribution in the body?

Which of the following factors can affect the extent of drug distribution in the body?

Which type of drugs are more likely to distribute faster in the body?

Which of the following is the most important plasma protein that binds with acidic and some basic drugs?

What percentage of drug binding is reversible between the free and protein-bound form?

Which form of the drug is pharmacologically active and can freely bind with its targets to exert its effects?

Which organ contains drug metabolizing enzymes that can contribute to the first-pass metabolism?

What is the primary route of drug excretion from the body?

What effect does first-pass metabolism have on drug bioavailability?

Which of the following factors can affect the extent of first-pass metabolism?

What happens to the drug level and bioavailability during first-pass metabolism?

What is the role of drug metabolizing enzymes in first-pass metabolism?

Which organ is the primary site for drug metabolism?

What is the main objective of drug metabolism?

What are the two stages of drug metabolism?

Which type of reaction in Phase 1 metabolism involves the addition of a new -OH group directly?

Which of the following is NOT a type of reaction in Phase 1 metabolism?

Which of the following enzymes is responsible for glucuronidation in Phase 2 metabolism?

Which products of Phase 2 metabolism are ready to be excreted in urine?

During drug overdose, what happens to Phase 2 metabolism?

Which of the following is a major excretion system for drugs?

What is the primary route of drug excretion from the body?

What is enterohepatic circulation?

Which mechanism is the most effective for drug elimination in the kidneys?

What factors can affect active tubular secretion of drugs?

Which part of the kidney is mainly responsible for tubular reabsorption of lipophilic drugs?

Which type of drug target can be bound by an agonist to activate its action?

Which type of drug target can be bound by an antagonist to block the action of an agonist?

Which type of drug target can be inhibited by a drug to act as a false substrate?

What is the primary objective of drug metabolism?

Which type of drug target is associated with ligand-gated ion channels?

Which type of dose-response curve is used to measure the response of a single model, such as cells or animals, to the concentration or dose of an agonist?

What does the half-maximal effective dose (ED50) represent in a graded dose-response curve?

What happens to the response of a drug after it reaches its maximal effect in a dose-response relationship?

Which of the following accurately describes affinity in relation to drug binding?

How is the equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) calculated to determine drug affinity?

What does a smaller Kd value indicate about drug affinity?

What is the purpose of calculating the ED50 of a drug?

What is a common misconception about drug potency?

Which method is used to determine the efficacy of a drug?

What is the primary difference between a full agonist and a partial agonist?

What is the meaning of Emax in the context of drug efficacy?

Which type of antagonist binds at a different site of the receptor, mostly permanently, and cannot be overcome by increasing agonist concentration?

What effect does the presence of a competitive antagonist have on the potency of agonists?

Which type of antagonist competes with agonists for binding at the agonist recognition site reversibly?

Which of the following statements about drug selectivity is correct?

Which of the following statements about drug specificity is correct?

Which of the following statements about drug selectivity and specificity is correct?

Which of the following best defines the therapeutic index?

Which of the following statements about drugs with a low therapeutic index is true?

What is the importance of the therapeutic window and index in indicating a drug's safety?

Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of drug desensitization?

Which of the following best describes tolerance in relation to drug response?

What is the difference between tolerance and molecular desensitization?

Which of the following pathways can lead to tolerance?

Which type of cell-cell communication involves the release of chemical messengers (hormones) into the circulatory system to signal distant cells?

What type of cell-cell communication signals adjacent cells or communicates with the cell next to it using chemical messengers (cytokines, chemokines)?

Which type of cell-cell communication signals a cell via chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) in the synapse?

Which of the following statements about steroid hormones is correct?

Which of the following is true about the release of steroid hormones into the blood circulation?

What is the role of the hormone-receptor complex in steroid hormone action?

Which of the following is true about peptide hormones?

What is the role of cAMP in peptide hormone signaling?

Which type of receptor is associated with steroid hormones?

Which type of response is characteristic of peptide hormones?

Which signaling pathway is activated by peptide hormones?

Which type of control involves the release of a hormone in response to stimulation from another hormone?

What is the primary purpose of a negative feedback loop in hormone regulation?

Which type of feedback loop occurs less commonly but is essential in certain processes?

Which lobe of the pituitary gland is responsible for storing and secreting oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones?

Which lobe of the pituitary gland synthesizes and releases growth hormone (GH) and prolactin as direct acting hormones?

Which gland regulates and controls the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland?

Which hormone from the anterior pituitary gland targets the bone, liver, and adipose tissue?

Which hormone from the anterior pituitary gland is responsible for the secretion of cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens?

Which hormone from the posterior pituitary gland is involved in uterus contraction during labor and milk production?

Which class of hormones is synthesized from cholesterol?

Which class of hormones does not require plasma protein for transportation?

Which type of receptors are involved in rapid and transient actions of hormones?

Which type of hormone binds with intracellular receptors?

Which hormone serves as a vehicle for hydrophilic hormones that need plasma protein?

Which gland produces melatonin?

Which of the following statements about the release of peptide hormones is correct?

Which of the following is true about the release of amino-acid hormones?

Which of the following is NOT a requirement for the release of steroid hormones?

Which type of hormone is released into blood circulation by simple diffusion?

How are peptide hormones released from storage when needed?

Which type of hormone synthesis involves iodination of tyrosine residues?

Which part of the adrenal gland produces glucocorticoids?

Which hormone is mainly regulated by ACTH?

Which zone of the adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone?

Which disease is characterized by high levels of glucocorticoid (cortisol)?

Which adrenal disease is mainly caused by autoimmune factors?

Which adrenal disease is characterized by high levels of mineralocorticoid (aldosterone)?

Which cell type in the brain is responsible for myelinating the cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

What is the main function of astrocytes in the brain?

What is the role of microglial cells in the brain?

Which neurotransmitter is both excitatory and inhibitory?

Which neurotransmitter is excitatory via D1 receptors and inhibitory via D2 receptors?

Which neuropeptide is excitatory?

Which ion(s) experience increased conductance in the post-synaptic cell when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors?

What happens if the threshold is reached in the post-synaptic cell?

What is the effect of an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) on the post-synaptic neurone?

Which ions are typically let through by neurotransmitter receptors?

Which neurotransmitter is generally considered inhibitory?

What leads to changes within the cell to cause a biological response after neurotransmitter activation?

Which class of receptors allows selective movement of ions and is faster in transmitting signals?

What is the major neurotransmitter of the nervous system?

Which enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of acetylcholine?

Which type of receptor is activated by acetylcholine to cause depolarization in the post-synaptic cell?

What is the main role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the breakdown of acetylcholine?

What is the product of the breakdown of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)?

Which of the following statements about myelin is correct?

What happens to the speed of electrical signal transmission when myelin is present?

Which cells are responsible for producing myelin in the central nervous system?

Which of the following cells has a more negative resting membrane potential?

What triggers action potentials in excitable cells like muscle and nerve cells?

What maintains the concentration gradient across a cell membrane?

Which ion plays a major role in generating the resting membrane potential?

What is the approximate value of the resting membrane potential?

What is the role of Gibbs and Donnan equilibrium in the resting membrane potential?

Which ion(s) experience increased conductance during the generation and conductance of an action potential?

What is the potential difference during the after-depolarisation phase of an action potential?

What is the term for the period of time between the stimulus and the generation of an action potential?

Which of the following is true about the generation and conductance of an action potential?

What is the advantage of myelin insulator in saltatory conduction?

Which ion channels open first during the initiation of an action potential?

Which ion(s) experience increased conductance in the post-synaptic cell when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors?

What is the first step in the process of neurotransmitter release at a terminal bouton?

What happens if the threshold for an action potential is reached in the post-synaptic cell?

Which part of the nervous system processes, interprets, and stores information, as well as issues orders for motor control of muscles and glands?

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

What is the main function of the spinal cord in the nervous system?

Which division of the nervous system regulates the contraction of skeletal muscles?

Which division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for an emergency?

Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for conserving and restoring energy?

Which fibers of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) convey neural impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system (CNS)?

Which fibers of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) convey neural impulses from the CNS to the effector organs?

What are nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) derived from?

Which layer of the meninges is inseparable from the surface of the spinal cord?

What is the name of the collection of spinal nerve roots that extend inferiorly beyond the termination of the spinal cord?

Which layer of the meninges forms a sheath around the spinal cord and extends from the foramen magnum to the lower border of the second sacral (S2) vertebra?

Which part of the brain is responsible for connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres?

Which part of the brain remains after the removal of the forebrain and cerebellum?

Which meninges surround and protect the brain?

Which part of the brain is responsible for balance and coordination?

Which lobe of the brain is associated with motor function?

Which part of the brainstem controls respiratory and cardiac function?

Which layer of meninges covers the spinal cord closest to the bone?

Which nerve root contains motor fibers?

What are the structures connected by the corpus callosum?

Which part of the nervous system is responsible for the collection of nerve cell bodies within the CNS?

What is the name of the structure that continues as a thread-like structure called filum terminale below the spinal cord?

At which vertebral level does the spinal cord commonly terminate in adults?

Which part of the brain invests the spinal cord closely and continues as a thread-like structure called filum terminale below the spinal cord?

What is the collection of nerve cell bodies called within the central nervous system (CNS)?

Where does the spinal cord commonly terminate in adults?

Which part of the brain separates the frontal lobe from the parietal and temporal lobes?

What are the three layers of meninges that cover the spinal cord called?

What are the two nerve roots that initially arise from the spinal cord?