Questions and Answers
What are the two divisions of the skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
Name an example of a long bone.
Humerus
Name an example of a short bone.
Trapezoid
Name an example of a flat bone.
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Name an example of a sesamoid bone.
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Name an example of an irregular bone.
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What do the cranial bones collectively protect?
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Name the four major facial bones.
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The vertebral column allows multidirectional movement of the torso.
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What are the three functions of the paranasal sinuses?
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Describe the function of intervertebral discs.
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What do true ribs attach to?
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What is the function of the clavicle?
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What are the two main types of bone tissue?
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Define osteoporosis.
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What happens to bone mass over the lifespan.
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Describe how skeletal muscle contraction occurs.
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What neurotransmitter causes skeletal muscle contraction?
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What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
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What are the cells of lymph nodes?
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Where do B and T cells mature?
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Name three areas of lymphatic nodules.
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What are the functions of the spleen?
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Describe the anatomical position of the spleen.
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What is the difference between cancerous nodes and infected nodes?
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Which cells are involved in phagocytosis?
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What is immunity?
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What type of immunity involves direct exposure to a microbe?
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What are the types of acquired immunity?
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What is selective toxicity?
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What is antibiotic resistance?
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Bactericidal means it directly kills bacteria, whereas __________ inhibits the growth of bacteria.
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List four undesirable responses of the immune system.
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Name and label all organs of the digestive tract in the correct sequence from when food enters the mouth to the exit from the body.
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Name and describe the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavities.
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Name and describe the six digestive system processes.
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Name the four layers of the digestive tract in the correct sequence from innermost to outer layer.
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Describe the function of each layer of the digestive tract.
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Name the three layers of the peritoneum in the correct sequence, deep to superficial.
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State four functions of the tongue.
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State the health risks associated with tooth and gum disease.
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State two functions of saliva.
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Name the four contents of saliva and give a function for each.
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State two situations that would reduce the production of saliva.
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Describe what would happen if saliva was not produced.
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State the location and function of the epiglottis.
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State the function of the oesophagus.
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Define dysphagia.
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State the major function of the stomach.
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State the function of stomach juice and the specific function of HCl and mucus in the stomach.
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Describe the homeostatic imbalances that can occur with prolonged or severe vomiting.
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Describe the anatomical position of the liver.
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State the seven functions of the liver.
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Name the two blood vessels that supply the liver & the vein that exits the liver.
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State the function of the stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupffer’s) cells.
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Name the cells that produce bile.
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Name the structure that stores bile and describe the main function of bile.
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Describe the anatomical position of the pancreas.
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State one exocrine function of the pancreas.
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Name the three portions of the small intestine in correct sequence.
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Describe two functions of the small intestine.
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Name the four structural features of the small intestine and state their overall function.
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State the function of intestinal juice.
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State four functions of the large intestine.
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Name the main cranial nerve involved in regulating the digestive system.
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State the autonomic system that stimulates the digestive system.
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Name the two main reflexes that affect motility in the intestines.
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Describe the defecation reflex using the components of the reflex arc.
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Name the six types of nutrients.
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State the major source of energy for the body.
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Name the three monosaccharides that are absorbed.
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State the end products of digestion of triglycerides.
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State five types of lipids and describe the major function for each type.
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State the overall function of lipoproteins.
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Name the three different types of lipoproteins and describe the specific function for each type.
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Describe the clinical significance of raised LDL.
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State the end product of the digestion of proteins and describe the overall function of these units.
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Name seven different types of proteins and give one function for each type.
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Name the four fat-soluble vitamins and describe one main function of each.
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Explain the function of antioxidant vitamins.
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Name and describe a main function for the minerals listed in the lecture notes.
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Define the three different drug names.
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Define the term pharmacodynamics.
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Define the terms agonist and antagonist.
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Define the term pharmacokinetics.
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Name and describe the four pharmacokinetic processes in correct sequence.
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State five ways that drugs can be excreted.
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Explain hepatic first pass effect.
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Explain drug bioavailability.
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State six functions of the skeletal system.
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Study Notes
Digestive System Overview
- Digestive tract sequence: Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Stomach → Pyloric Sphincter → Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum → Cecum → Ascending Colon → Transverse Colon → Descending Colon → Sigmoid Colon → Anus.
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
- Nine regions: Right Hypochondriac, Left Hypochondriac, Epigastric, Right Lumbar, Left Lumbar, Umbilical, Right Iliac, Left Iliac, Hypogastric.
- Four quadrants: Right Upper Quadrant, Left Upper Quadrant, Right Lower Quadrant, Left Lower Quadrant. Each quadrant contains various organs including intestines, liver, pancreas, and reproductive organs.
Digestive System Processes
- Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth.
- Propulsion: Moving food through the digestive tract via swallowing and peristalsis.
- Mechanical Digestion: Physical breakdown of food (chewing, churning in the stomach).
- Chemical Digestion: Breakdown of food molecules into their building blocks.
- Absorption: Nutrient transfers into blood or lymph from the digestive tract.
- Defecation: Elimination of indigestible substances from the body.
Layers of the Digestive Tract
- Mucosa: Epithelium; protects and secretes.
- Submucosa: Dense, irregular connective tissue; supports mucosa and contains nerves.
- Muscularis: Circular and longitudinal muscle; responsible for peristalsis and segmentation.
- Serosa: Areolar connective tissue; separates internal organs from the abdominal cavity.
Peritoneum Layers
- Visceral Layer: Covers organs.
- Peritoneal Layer: Contains serous fluid.
- Parietal Layer: Lines the abdominopelvic cavity.
Tongue Functions
- Tastes food.
- Manipulates food for chewing.
- Aids in swallowing.
- Articulates speech.
Tooth and Gum Disease Risks
- Dental caries: Caused by bacterial plaque.
- Plaque formation can lead to chronic inflammation, increasing heart disease and stroke risks.
Saliva Functions
- Softens and moistens food.
- Cleanses the mouth and teeth.
- Composition: Water (solvent), Salivary Amylase (starch digestion), Mucus (lubrication), Lysozyme (bacterial destruction).
- Reduced saliva production: Occurs with dehydration or sympathetic nervous system stimulation.
Epiglottis and Oesophagus Functions
- Epiglottis: Covers the larynx, directing food into the oesophagus.
- Oesophagus: Secretes mucus and transports food to the stomach via peristalsis.
Stomach Functions
- Compresses, kneads, and mixes food to initiate digestion.
- Stomach juice: HCl (kills microbes) and mucus (protects stomach lining).
Homeostatic Imbalances
- Prolonged vomiting can cause dehydration and electrolyte/pH imbalance.
Liver Position and Functions
- Anatomical position: Right Hypochondriac and Epigastric regions.
- Functions include bile production, RBC phagocytosis, nutrient processing, storage, clotting factor production, detoxification, and heat production.
Blood Flow to the Liver
- Supplied by: Hepatic Portal Vein and Hepatic Artery.
- Exits via: Hepatic Vein.
Bile Production and Function
- Produced by: Hepatocytes.
- Stored in: Gallbladder.
- Main functions: Neutralizes stomach acid, emulsifies fats, removes waste.
Pancreas Position and Function
- Located posterior to the stomach in the epigastric region.
- Exocrine function: Produces pancreatic juice for digestion.
Small Intestine Structure and Function
- Portions: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.
- Functions: Chemical digestion and mechanical digestion (via peristalsis).
Small Intestine Features
- Circular folds: Slow chyme transit for absorption.
- Villi: Contain blood capillaries and lacteals for fat absorption.
- Microvilli: Secrete enzymes; increase absorption surface area.
Large Intestine Functions
- Completes absorption of water/ions.
- Produces Vitamins B and K.
- Facilitates movement of contents and formation of feces.
Digestive Tract Control
- Vagus nerve (CNX) regulates the digestive system.
- Enteric nervous system controls gastric secretion and motility.
- Stress may inhibit GI function due to sympathetic activation.
Motility Reflexes
- Gastroileal Reflex: Triggered by stomach distension, increases peristalsis to caecum.
- Gastrocolic Reflex: Initiated by stomach distension, promotes mass peristalsis in the colon.
Defecation Reflex
- Stimulus: Rectal distension from feces.
- Control center: Sacral spinal cord.
- Effectors: Lower colon contraction, relaxation of internal anal sphincter.
Ageing Effects on Digestive System
- Slower digestion.
- Decreased enzyme production.
- Reduced blood flow to organs.
- Changes in taste and appetite.
- Slower peristalsis.
Nutrients Overview
- Six types: Water, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Minerals, Vitamins.
- Major energy source: Carbohydrates.
- Monosaccharides absorbed: Glucose, fructose, galactose.
- Triglyceride digestion produces: Monoglyceride and 2 fatty acids.
Lipid Types and Functions
- Fatty Acid: Energy production, triglyceride synthesis.
- Triglyceride: Insulation, energy storage.
- Phospholipids: Cell membrane structure.
- Steroids: Precursor for various hormones.
- Prostaglandins: Mediators of inflammation and pain responses.
Lipoproteins Overview
- Function: Lipid transport in blood.
- Types: HDL (cholesterol removal), LDL (cholesterol delivery), VLDL (triglyceride delivery).
- High LDL levels correlate with increased cardiovascular risk.
Protein Digestion
- End product: Amino acids used for protein synthesis.
- Protein types include structural, hormonal, contractile, antibodies, hemoglobin, enzymes, neurotransmitters.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
- A (vision), D (calcium metabolism), E (antioxidant), K (blood clotting).
Antioxidant Vitamins Function
- Protect cells from oxidative damage.
Mineral Functions Overview
- Essential for various bodily functions including bone health, nerve conduction, and metabolic reactions.
Pharmacology Overview
- Drug Names: Chemical name, Generic name, Trade name (marketed name).
- Pharmacodynamics: Study of drug interaction and response.
- Agonist vs Antagonist: Agonist activates; antagonist deactivates receptors.
- Pharmacokinetics: Study of body’s effect on drugs (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion).
Pharmacokinetic Processes
- Absorption: Medication passage into bloodstream, influenced by blood flow and surface area.
- Distribution: Drug movement from blood to tissues, affected by blood supply and binding.
- Metabolism: Chemical modification of drugs, primarily in the liver.
- Excretion: Drug removal from the body via various routes.
Drug Excretion Routes
- Drugs can be excreted through bile, feces, expired air, sweat, and breast milk.
Hepatic First Pass Effect
- Orally taken drugs undergo metabolism in the liver before entering systemic circulation, affecting bioavailability.
Drug Bioavailability
- Refers to the proportion of a drug that enters circulation; IV drugs are 100% bioavailable due to bypassing first-pass metabolism.
Musculoskeletal System Functions
- Support and framework.
- Protects vital organs.
- Assists movement.
- Mineral storage.
- Houses red bone marrow for blood cell production.
Skeleton Divisions
- Axial Skeleton: Provides support/protection (skull, vertebral column).
- Appendicular Skeleton: Facilitates movement (limbs and girdles).
Bone Types and Examples
- Long (Humerus), Short (Trapezoid), Flat (Sternum), Sesamoid (Patella), Irregular (Vertebra).
Cranial and Facial Bones
- Cranial: Frontal, occipital, temporal, parietal; protect the brain.
- Facial: Nasal, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible; framework for face and cavities for sensory organs.
Paranasal Sinuses Functions
- Reduce skull weight.
- Assist in vocal resonance.
- Warm and humidify inhaled air.
Vertebral Column Functions
- Allows multi-directional torso movement.
- Supports trunk weight transfer to lower limbs.
- Protects spinal cord and provides muscle attachment points.### Vertebral Column and Curves
- Five sections: Cervical (7 vertebrae), Thoracic (12), Lumbar (5), Sacrum, Coccyx
- Normal curves: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral Curves
Spinal Abnormalities
- Scoliosis: Abnormal lateral curvature, typically in the thoracic region
- Kyphosis: Exaggerated thoracic curve characterized by a hunched back
- Lordosis: Increased lumbar curvature, often leading to an arched lower back
Vertebrae Structure and Features
- Vertebra components: Body, vertebral arch, processes for muscle and ligament attachment
- Vertebral foramen: Contains the spinal cord
- Intervertebral foramen: Contains spinal nerves
Intervertebral Discs
- Located between vertebrae
- Functions: Absorb compressive forces, allow vertebral column movement
Thoracic Cage
- Protects heart, lungs, great blood vessels
- Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs
- Provides muscle attachment points for the neck, back, chest, and shoulders
Ribs
- Total ribs: 24; 1-7 are true ribs (attached), 8-10 are indirectly attached, 11 & 12 are floating
- True ribs connect to the sternum via costal cartilage; floating ribs have cartilage embedded in lateral body wall muscles
Clavicle and Scapula Functions
- Clavicle: Transmits mechanical force from upper limbs to trunk
- Scapula: Provides attachment points for muscles; glenoid cavity articulates with humerus for shoulder mobility
Upper Limb Bones
- Upper limb bones (proximal to distal): Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges
Pelvis
- Functions: Supports vertebral column and abdominal organs
- Joints: Pubic symphysis (anterior), Sacroiliac (posterior)
Lower Limb Bones
- Lower limb bones (proximal to distal): Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalanges
- Calcaneus: Located at the heel
Long Bone Structure
- Components: Diaphysis, epiphysis, periosteum
- Periosteum functions: Protects bone, attachment for ligaments/tendons, nourishes bone tissue, aids in fracture repair
Bone Tissue Types
- Compact Bone: External surface of bones; contains osteons for strength
- Spongy Bone: Inside bones and ends of long bones; consists of trabeculae housing bone marrow
Cartilage Types
- Articular Cartilage: Inside joint cavities; reduces friction and allows smooth movement
- Fibrocartilage: In intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis; strength and compressibility
Bone Tissue Components
- Bone tissue consists of connective tissue, cells, matrix, mineral salts, and collagen fibers
Bone Remodelling
- Continuous process involving bone resorption and formation, influenced by factors like mechanical stress and hormones (e.g., calcitonin, parathyroid hormone)
Fracture Repair Process
- Step 1: Hematoma formation; blood leaks, causing swelling and inflammation.
- Step 2: Formation of fibrocartilaginous callus; bridging of broken ends using collagen and cartilage.
- Step 3: Bony callus formation; fibrocartilage converts to spongy bone.
- Step 4: Bone remodelling; replacement of spongy bone with compact bone results in a thicker, stronger repair site.
Factors Affecting Bone Healing
- Delays can occur from: Tissue fragments, poor blood supply, misalignment, mobility of bone ends, and health factors (illness, malnutrition, aging).
Bone Mass Changes Over Lifespan
- Bone deposition exceeds resorption from birth to adolescence; equal in young adults; females experience increased loss after age 30, while males do so after age 60.
Osteoporosis
- Defined as an imbalance where bone resorption exceeds deposition, leading to decreased bone density.
- Risk factors: Age, hormonal changes, inadequate calcium, and activity levels.
Age-Related Skeletal Changes
- Progressive brittleness, thinner articular cartilage, reduced height due to intervertebral disc thinning, and increased rigidity in the thoracic cage.
Joint Types
- Three types: Fibrous (little movement), Cartilaginous (small movement), Synovial (free movement)
- Examples: Sutures (fibrous), Symphysis pubis (cartilaginous), Knee (synovial)
Synovial Joints
- Types: Hinge joints (elbow), Ball and socket joints (shoulder)
- Synovial membrane: Lines joint surfaces, produces synovial fluid for lubrication.
Synovial Fluid Functions
- Reduces friction, absorbs shock, supplies nutrients to cartilage, contains immune cells.
Joint Movements
- Types of movement include flexion, extension, hyperextension, rotation, and eversion/inversion, among others.
Arthritis Types
- Osteoarthritis: Degenerative, non-inflammatory affecting weight-bearing joints.
- Rheumatoid arthritis: Autoimmune, inflammatory leading to joint fusion.
Muscle Tissue Functions
- Generates movement, maintains posture, regulates organ volumes, transports substances, produces heat, and protects structures.
Muscle Characteristics
- Electrically excitable, contracts upon stimulation, stretches without damage, elastic, returning to original shape.
Muscle Types
- Skeletal muscle: Moves skeleton, attached to bones; Cardiac muscle: Causes heart contractions; Smooth muscle: Changes organ diameters, organs' walls.
Neuromuscular Junction
- Site where nerve impulses initiate muscle contractions through neurotransmitters like Acetylcholine (Ach).
Muscle Contraction Mechanism
- Actin and myosin are contractile proteins that interact during muscle contraction.
Atrophy and Hypertrophy
- Atrophy: Muscle wasting due to disuse or nerve issues; Hypertrophy: Increase in muscle size from repetitive activity.
Tendons vs. Ligaments
- Tendons connect muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to other bones.
Muscle Aging
- Progressive loss of muscle mass and strength begins at age 30; regular exercise can combat effects.
Pelvic Floor Muscles
- Supports pelvic organs, acts as sphincters for urethra, vagina, and rectum.
Intramuscular Injection Sites
- Common sites: Gluteus Medius, Vastus Lateralis, Deltoid.
Lymphatic System Functions
- Drains excess fluid, transports lipids from intestines, and plays a role in immune response.
Lymph Nodes Cells
- B Cells and T Cells: Stimulate immune responses; Macrophages: Phagocytose foreign materials.
Lymphatic Nodules Locations
- Peyer’s patches, appendix, tonsils are key concentrations of lymphatic tissues providing immune functions.
Spleen Functions
- Removes damaged cells, stores platelets, produces blood cells in fetal life, fulfills immune roles.
Cancer and Infection Spread
- Nodes can become overwhelmed with pathogens or cancer cells, leading to multiplication and infections.
Differences in Lymph Nodes
- Cancerous nodes: Firm, enlarge, non-tender; Infected nodes: Soft, tender, moveable.
Defence Mechanisms
- First line (innate/non-specific): Skin, tears, mucus, and cilia protect against microorganisms entering the body.### Friendly Bacteria and Immune Response
- Friendly bacteria contribute to maintaining a balanced microbiome, which plays a role in preventing harmful infections.
Phagocytosis Overview
- Key cells involved: Neutrophils, Monocytes, and Macrophages.
- Phagocytosis functions to engulf and digest pathogens or cellular debris, serving as an essential mechanism of innate immunity.
Inflammation
- Overall functions include:
- Destroying microbes and their by-products.
- Preventing spread of infection through formation of a fibrin wall.
- Clearing dead tissue and microbes from the affected area.
- Facilitating tissue repair.
Stages of Inflammation
- Vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels to allow fluid and immune cells to enter.
- Phagocyte migration to the damaged area, where they consume pathogens and debris.
- Tissue repair processes begin following clearance of infection.
Fever in Inflammatory Response
- Fever is a systemic response triggered by pyrogens, which reset the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher temperature.
- Benefits of fever include slowing bacterial growth, enhancing immune responses, and facilitating recovery.
Implications of Fever Treatment
- Benefits include:
- Slowed bacterial growth and improved immune efficiency.
- Shorter infection duration with enhanced tissue repair.
- Complications can occur in vulnerable populations, like older adults, including dehydration, tachycardia, and potential seizures in children.
Immunity and Adaptive Immunity Cells
- Immunity is the immune system's ability to defend against infectious agents.
- Key cells include T lymphocytes (T cells) and B lymphocytes (B cells), both originating from bone marrow stem cells.
Categories of Adaptive Immunity
-
Antibody Mediated (Humoral):
- B cells proliferate and produce plasma cells to create antibodies.
-
Cell Mediated:
- T cells bind to and destroy infected cells displaying pathogens.
Immune Response: Primary vs. Secondary
-
Primary Response:
- Initial exposure to an antigen results in the production of antibodies.
-
Secondary Response:
- Faster and more robust immune response upon re-exposure to the same antigen, critical for effective long-term immunity.
Antibody Classes and Clinical Significance
-
IgG:
- Most abundant, triggers complement response, crosses the placenta, offers long-lasting immunity.
-
IgA:
- Found in secretions like saliva and breast milk, prevents tissue invasion by pathogens.
-
IgM:
- First antibody produced during infection, indicating recent exposure.
-
IgE:
- Involved in allergic reactions, binds to mast cells and basophils.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
- MHC proteins on cells identify them as "self" to prevent immune attacks on the body's own cells.
- Unique to individuals and essential in organ transplantation to prevent rejection.
Types of Acquired Immunity
-
Natural Active:
- Exposure to pathogens initiates immune response, may provide lifelong immunity.
-
Natural Passive:
- Maternal antibodies (IgG and IgA) transferred to child through the placenta and breast milk.
-
Artificial Active:
- Vaccination prompts immune response without causing disease.
-
Artificial Passive:
- Injection of pre-formed antibodies for immediate but short-term immunity.
Vaccine Types
-
Live Attenuated:
- Contains weakened live pathogens, usually lifelong immunity (e.g., MMR).
-
Inactivated:
- Killed microbes, requires boosters (e.g., Influenza).
-
Subunit:
- Contains parts of the pathogen, needs multiple boosters (e.g., Hib).
-
Toxoids:
- Inactivated toxins to produce immunity, often requires boosters (e.g., DTaP).
Herd Immunity
- Concept where a high percentage of the population is immunized, thereby providing indirect protection to non-immune individuals.
Immune System Undesirable Responses
- Hypersensitivity reactions.
- Autoimmune disorders.
- Immune compromise conditions.
- Reactions against transplanted tissues.
- Chronic inflammation leading to tissue damage.
Age-Related Changes to the Immune System
- Newborns develop immunity through microbial exposure; excessive antibiotic use can hinder normal development.
- Older adults experience reduced vaccine responses, increased auto-antibody production, and heightened infection susceptibility.
Selective Toxicity
- Ability to target and kill pathogens without harming host cells by attacking structures unique to microbes.
Bactericidal vs. Bacteriostatic
-
Bactericidal:
- Kills bacteria directly.
-
Bacteriostatic:
- Inhibits bacterial growth, allowing the immune system to clear the infection.
Broad Spectrum vs. Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics
-
Broad Spectrum:
- Effective against a wide array of bacteria, useful in emergencies but may disrupt normal flora.
-
Narrow Spectrum:
- Targets specific pathogens, minimizing side effects and preserving normal flora.
Antimicrobial Mechanisms
- Interference with cell wall synthesis.
- Disruption of DNA replication.
- Inhibition of protein synthesis.
- Interruption of vital metabolic reactions.
Antibiotic Resistance
- Occurs when microbes acquire the ability to withstand antimicrobial agents, such as MRSA and VRE.
Reducing Antibiotic Resistance Strategies
- Avoid inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.
- Complete full courses of treatment.
- Use specific antibiotics rather than broad-spectrum when possible.
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Test your knowledge of the digestive system by naming and labeling all the organs in the correct sequence from the mouth to the anus. Additionally, describe the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity, including the organs contained within each area.