Developmental Psychology: Key Concepts

• Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why people change over time, from conception to death.
• This field examines change across various topics like motor skills, cognitive development, executive functions, language acquisition, moral understanding, and identity formation.

Key Issues in Developmental Psychology

• Nature versus nurture explores the impact of genetic inheritance (nature) versus environmental factors (nurture) on development.
• Continuity versus discontinuity considers whether development occurs gradually and continuously or through distinct stages.
• Stability versus change questions whether individual characteristics remain consistent or evolve over time.

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

• Observation involves methodical watching and recording of behavior, which can be done in natural settings or controlled labs.
• Self-report measures, including questionnaires and interviews, gather data from participants about their own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
• Experimental designs manipulate an independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
• Case studies offer detailed information about a single individual.
• Correlational studies assess the relationship between two or more variables.
• Longitudinal studies track the same individuals over a period of time.
• Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at a single time.
• Sequential studies combine longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.

Major Theories of Development

Psychoanalytic Theory

• Sigmund Freud's theory highlights the role of unconscious processes and early experiences in shaping development.
• Freud proposed psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital), each linked to a specific erogenous zone and task.
• Erik Erikson broadened Freud's theory, focusing on psychosocial stages and sociocultural factors, with each stage involving a unique crisis.
• Erikson's stages: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.

Behaviorism

• Behaviorism emphasizes environmental factors in shaping behavior.
• John B. Watson claimed development results primarily from learning via classical conditioning, associating stimuli with responses.
• B.F. Skinner centered on operant conditioning, where reinforcement and punishment drive learning.
• Albert Bandura's social learning theory highlights learning through observation, imitation, and cognitive processes.

Cognitive Development Theory

• Jean Piaget suggested children actively build knowledge by exploring and interacting with their surroundings.
• Piaget's theory includes four cognitive development stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational, each with distinct ways of thinking.
• Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stresses the impact of social interaction and cultural context on cognitive development.
• Vygotsky introduced the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which denotes the difference between what a child can do independently and with guidance.

Information Processing Theory

• This theory uses the computer as a model for understanding the mind.
• It focuses on how individuals perceive, process, and store information.
• Attention, memory, and problem-solving are key components in cognitive development.

Ethological Theory

• This perspective emphasizes the role of innate behaviors and evolution in development.
• Konrad Lorenz studied imprinting in animals, which is rapid learning during a critical period.
• John Bowlby applied ethological principles to attachment, noting infants' innate need for close bonds with caregivers.

Ecological Systems Theory

• Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory emphasizes the importance of multiple environmental systems in shaping development.
• These systems are: the microsystem (immediate environment), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect influences), macrosystem (cultural values), and chronosystem (time and history).

Chapter 1: The Study of Human Development

• Human development is the multidisciplinary study of how people change and stay the same over time.

Defining Development

• Development is systematic, organized, and patterned.
• Development is adaptive, helping individuals navigate internal and external circumstances.
• Development is continuous, building upon previous experiences.

Periods of Development

• Infancy (birth to 2 years) involves rapid physical and cognitive growth.
• Early Childhood (2 to 6 years) marks development of independence and social skills.
• Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years) focuses on academic learning and competence.
• Adolescence (11 to 18 years) features significant physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes.
• Early Adulthood (18 to 40 years) involves establishing careers and relationships.
• Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) includes career consolidation and family responsibilities.
• Late Adulthood (65 years and older) is characterized by reflection and adapting to physical and cognitive shifts.

Chapter 2: Theories of Development

• A theory encompasses logically related concepts that describe, explain, and predict behavior.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

• This perspective focuses on the unconscious drives and motives behind human behavior.
• Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson are key theorists here.

Learning Perspective

• Emphasizes the role of experiences in shaping behavior.
• Behaviorism and social learning theory are central to this perspective.

Cognitive Perspective

• Focuses on how people think and understand the world.
• Piaget's cognitive development theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory are key.

Contextual Perspective

• This perspective stresses the role of social and cultural context in shaping development.
• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is a key component.

Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective

• Focuses on the evolutionary and biological roots of behavior.
• Ethology is a key theory in this viewpoint.

Chapter 3: Genetic and Environmental Foundations

• Genes, composed of DNA, are the basic units of heredity.
• Chromosomes are cell structures containing genes; humans typically have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.
• Genotype is genetic makeup, while phenotype is the observable expression of the genotype.
• Heredity and environment interact to shape development.

Genetic Influences

• Genes influence traits like physical attributes, intelligence, and personality.
• Some traits are determined by a single gene, while others are polygenic (influenced by multiple genes).
• Genetic mutations can cause developmental disorders.

Environmental Influences

• Environmental factors like nutrition, parenting, and education significantly impact development.
• The environment can interact with genes to influence the expression of traits.

Gene-Environment Interaction

• This interaction describes the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping development.
• Passive, evocative, and active gene-environment correlations illustrate how genes and environment collaborate.

Chapter 4: Prenatal Development and Birth

• Prenatal development has three periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
• The germinal period lasts from conception to implantation (about 2 weeks).
• The embryonic period lasts from implantation to the end of the 8th week and is critical for organ development.
• The fetal period lasts from the 9th week to birth, involving continued growth and organ system refinement.

Prenatal Influences

• Teratogens are environmental agents harmful to the developing embryo or fetus.
• Examples of teratogens include alcohol, tobacco, drugs, and certain infections.
• Maternal factors like age, nutrition, and stress can also affect prenatal development.

Birth Process

• Labor has three stages: cervical dilation, fetal expulsion, and placental expulsion.
• Cesarean section is surgical delivery through an incision in the abdomen and uterus.
• Newborns are assessed using the Apgar scale, evaluating heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and color.