Exam 2 Ch 7

• This chapter explores the development of girls and women throughout their lives, considering the significant influence of cultural factors.

Infancy

• Sex differences in infancy are minimal across various traits.
• There is little to no difference in activity levels between sexes
• Inhibitory control exhibits little variance
• Perceptual sensitivity shows no significant difference
• Negative affect is similar
• Attention capabilities are alike in both sexes during infancy.
• Infants can distinguish between male and female voices around the age of 4-6 months.
• Recognition of male and female faces develops later, typically around 6-9 months.
• The gender segregation effect refers to children's tendency to play with others of the same gender, emerging in early childhood.
• Mothers tend to underestimate their daughters' abilities to crawl up an incline compared to their sons.
• The Baby X study involves presenting adults with an infant without disclosing its sex (or assigning a sex that may or may not be accurate), revealing how gender expectations influence perceptions and treatment of the baby.

Childhood

• Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender.
• Gender stability is the understanding that gender remains consistent over time.
• Gender constancy is the understanding that gender remains consistent despite changes in appearance or activities.
• Appearance rigidity is the strict adherence to gender-stereotypical appearances.
• Gender consistency is the awareness that gender is permanent regardless of changes.
• Gender dysphoria is the distress caused by a mismatch between one's gender identity and assigned sex.
• Trans-affirmative practice involves supporting and affirming a person's gender identity, particularly for transgender individuals.
• Children typically develop a sense of gender identity around age 2-3.
• Gender constancy is usually achieved around age 6-7.
• Children can recognize the sex of other children as early as 2 years old.
• Gender essentialism is the belief that gender is a fixed and inherent trait, common in preschoolers who view gender as unchangeable and based on appearance.
• Tobin et al.’s (2010) gender self-socialization model explains that children actively seek information about gender and adjust their behavior to align with gender norms.
• Socialization is the process through which individuals learn the norms and values of their culture.
• Channeling (shaping) is when parents provide different opportunities and experiences for their children based on gender.
• Parents' channeling socializes children into gender stereotypical roles by encouraging specific activities and interests based on their sex.
• Parents often use different language with boys and girls, reinforcing gender stereotypes through communication.
• Parental modeling affects a child's gender development as children observe and imitate their parents' behaviors and attitudes.
• Teacher behaviors can reinforce gender stereotypes in the classroom through differential attention and highlighting gender.
• The media influences children's gender development by portraying stereotypical roles and behaviors.
• There are three stages of gender constancy development
  • gender labeling (2-3 years)
  • gender stability (3-4 years)
  • gender consistency (6-7 years).
• Transgender children show implicit and explicit gender identity preferences consistent with their gender identity, similar to cisgender children.

Adolescence

• Gender intensification in early adolescence involves an increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles.
• Erikson’s (1950) adolescence developmental stage focuses on identity vs. role confusion, suggesting sex differences in identity development.
• The contemporary response challenges the androcentric theory, arguing that female identity development is equally valid and not deficient.
• Male same-sex friendships tend to be activity-based and less intimate.
• Female same-sex friendships are more intimate and involve emotional support.
• Friendships often become more gender-segregated during adolescence.
• Male development of secondary sex characteristics includes voice deepening and the growth of facial hair.
• Female development includes breast budding and menarche (the first menstrual period).
• These changes can impact individuals psychologically, especially with budding breasts and menstruation.
• Females typically begin their growth spurt about two years earlier than males.
• This age difference can affect girls' self-esteem and body image.
• Pubertal timing can have significant psychological effects
  • Early-maturing girls may experience increased social and emotional challenges, while late-maturing girls may feel left out.
  • Early-maturing boys tend to experience increased confidence, while late-maturing boys may struggle with feelings of inadequacy.
• Puberty can be a particularly challenging time for transgender youth, and trans-affirmative care is essential to support their gender identity during this period.
• Co-rumination is excessive discussion of personal problems within a dyadic relationship and is more common among girls
  • This can lead to increased anxiety and depression.
• Sexualization (sexual objectification) is the treatment of a person as a sexual object, which can lead to negative effects.
• Sexual objectification can cause body image issues, decreased self-esteem, and mental health problems for adolescent girls.
• Objectified body consciousness is when individuals internalize an observer's perspective on their own body and is more common in females.
• Girls' self-esteem tends to decline during adolescence due to societal pressures and objectification.

Early Adulthood

• The average age for American women to marry today is around 28 years.
• Approximately 60% of women are married by age 40.
• Marriage can offer social support and companionship but may also involve traditional gender roles that limit autonomy.
• Women who never marry can experience greater independence and career opportunities and happiness as any married person.
• The 2015 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.
• The U.S. divorce rate is around 40-50%.
• Divorce can lead to financial instability and decreased economic well-being for women.
• About two-thirds of divorced women remarry.
• Jessie Bernard’s (1972) "His and Hers Marriage" concluded that men tend to benefit more from marriage than women which is no longer backed by current data.
• The motherhood mandate is the societal expectation that women should become mothers.
• The motherhood war refers to conflicts between mothers and non-mothers or among mothers with different parenting styles.
• Intensive mothering is an ideology that emphasizes mothers as the primary caregivers who should devote significant time and resources to raising their children.
• Voluntary childlessness can lead to greater career opportunities and personal fulfillment for women who do not want children.
• Arranged marriages and China's former one-child policy illustrate cultural differences in marriage and child-bearing practices.
• China's one-child policy was recently revised to a two-child policy due to demographic concerns.

Middle Age

• The empty nest syndrome is the feeling of sadness or loss when children leave home.
• Extant literature suggests that the empty nest syndrome is not as widespread or severe as once believed.
• General psychological well-being in midlife tends to improve, with increased autonomy and self-esteem.
• The risks of childbirth after 40 include increased complications for both mother and child.
• Menopause is the cessation of menstruation, typically occurring in the late 40s or early 50s.
• Physical effects of menopause include hot flashes, sleep disturbances, and vaginal dryness.
• Psychological effects can include mood changes, irritability, and decreased libido.
• The grandmother effect is the positive impact of grandmothers on their grandchildren's well-being and survival.
• It posits that grandmothers' involvement in childcare and support enhances the survival and reproductive success of their families.

Old Age

• The double standard of aging is the societal belief that aging is more negative for women than for men.
• Women are often judged more harshly for physical signs of aging.
• Sex differences in chronic illness reveal that women tend to live longer but experience more chronic health conditions.
• The life expectancy for females is approximately 81 years.
• The life expectancy for males is approximately 76 years.
• The female/male ratio increases with age, leading to a higher proportion of women in older age groups.
• This can result in social isolation and financial challenges for women.
• Sex differences in widowhood show that women are more likely to become widows due to their longer life expectancy and tendency to marry older men.
• Women are more likely to experience financial hardship and social isolation after their spouse's death.
• Sex differences in cognitive aging indicate that women tend to maintain cognitive function longer than men.
• However, women are at higher risk for Alzheimer's disease due to their longer lifespan.