Development Theories Chapter 2

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Questions and Answers

Which factor is NOT part of the observational learning process according to Social Cognitive Theory?

Memory

Motivation

Attention

Empathy (correct)

How does perceived self-efficacy influence learning according to the Social Cognitive Theory?

It eliminates the role of motivation.

It is influenced by perceived similarity to a model. (correct)

It is solely based on prior knowledge.

It only occurs through direct instruction.

In Piaget's cognitive developmental stages, which stage comes after the Preoperational Stage?

Concrete Operational Stage (correct)

Sensorimotor Stage

Transitory Stage

Formal Operational Stage

What is the primary basis for learning in Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory?

Social interactions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'assisted discovery' in the context of cognitive theories?

New knowledge is integrated with previous discoveries. Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a characteristic of the Information-processing theory?

Focuses solely on emotional responses. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the difference between what a child can achieve independently and with guidance in Vygotsky's theory?

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Signup and view all the answers

According to Piaget, what process involves adapting existing cognitive schemas to new information?

Accommodation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Freud's psychosexual theory?

The impact of internal drives and emotions on behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which personality types are defined in Freud's theory?

Id, Ego, Superego Signup and view all the answers

According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, what is necessary for healthy development?

A balance of positive and negative experiences Signup and view all the answers

In the context of classical conditioning, what establishes a conditioned response?

Unconditional stimulus paired with a neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of operant conditioning as described by B.F. Skinner?

It modifies behavior through reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a critical point in Erikson's psychosocial theory related to adult development?

Childhood experiences have a lasting impact on adult personality Signup and view all the answers

How do positive and negative reinforcement interact in real-life scenarios according to learning theories?

They interact in complex ways to influence behavior Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon did memory researchers support regarding repressed traumatic memories as suggested by Freud?

Some adults may forget childhood abuse memories Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main stages of memory according to the three-stage theory?

Sensory memory, Short-term memory, Long-term memory Signup and view all the answers

Which theory expands upon Piaget's original ideas regarding cognitive development?

Neo-Piagetian theories Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of behavioral genetics in psychological research?

Genetic influences on behavior Signup and view all the answers

In which aspect does ethology primarily focus?

Genetically determined survival mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the bioecological theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner?

A framework considering relationships between individuals and their environments Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of sociobiology?

It applies evolutionary theory to social behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the phenomenon observed when newly hatched geese follow a moving object as a primary caretaker?

Imprinting Signup and view all the answers

What does the macrosystem refer to in Bronfenbrenner's model of development?

Broader cultural or societal contexts Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Chapter 2: Theories of Development

This chapter covers various developmental theories, including psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, biological, and ecological perspectives. It also compares these theories.

Psychoanalytic Theories (Sigmund Freud)

Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions influence behavior.
Patient memories are used as primary source material.
Three personality types: id, ego, superego
Sexual feelings are part of personality development.
Freud's psychosexual stages (Table 2.1): Describes stages with associated ages, erogenous zones (focus of libido), and developmental tasks. Fixation at a particular stage can affect adult behavior and personality characteristics.

Psychoanalytic Theories (Erik Erikson)

Psychosocial theory: Development is influenced by cultural demands and internal drives.
Each stage requires resolution of a crisis.
Healthy development needs a balance of positive and negative experiences.
Erikson's psychosocial stages: (Page 9). Describes eight stages, age ranges, and associated psychosocial crises. Example Crises include Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs Guilt, and Industry vs Inferiority. Successful resolution at each stage contributes to personality development.
The first four stages lay the foundation for adult personality.
Adult stages are not tightly bound to age.

Learning Theories

Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Learning through associations between environmental stimuli and naturally occurring stimuli . A stimulus-response connection. A learned conditioned stimulus elicits a learned conditioned response.
Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Modifies voluntary behavior. Behaviors are dependent on reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment or extinction.
Hints for parents and caregivers: Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life. Behavioral change is more likely when consequences follow behavior immediately.
Observational learning (Albert Bandura): Learning by observing, models can be reinforced or punished for their actions. Observational learning is dependent on attention, memory, physical capabilities, and motivation. The concept of perceived self-efficacy examines people's beliefs in their abilities to produce desired effects.

Cognitive Theories

Piaget's cognitive theory: Development via action-based processes that progress to changes in mental operations. Schemes, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration are key concepts.
Piaget's cognitive developmental stages: (page 20): Describing stages of development, such as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Individual rates of development vary.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: Complex thinking arises from social interactions, not private explorations. Children develop cognitive skills via guided learning by more skilled partners (Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)) and scaffolding.
Information-processing theory: The computer is used as a model to explain how the mind manages information. Memory is viewed as a three-stage process involving sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory.

Biological Theories

Behavioral genetics: Examines the genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes. Example questions to ask in this perspective include how genetic factors influence IQ with consideration of age. A review of findings from Dutch twin studies is mentioned in relation to this topic.
Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms for survival using natural selection as a framework. Imprinting is an example.
Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary theory to social behavior. "Genetic selfishness" is a prominent concept. - Lorenz, Konrad : His work on imprinting.
Bioecological theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner): Describes development in terms of relationships between individuals and their environments. A variety of contexts are considered in this theory including the macrosystem, exosystem, microsystem, mesosystem, and biological context.

Comparing Theories

Theories differ in their assumptions about development, especially in terms of activity, nature versus nurture, stability versus change. (Table 2.7)

Eclecticism (Multiple Theoretical Approaches)

A multidisciplinary approach that integrates ideas from multiple theories to avoid rigid adherence to one perspective in order to construct more comprehensive theories.
Evaluation of theories in terms of usefulness and generation of testable predictions.
A theory's practical value and insights are useful to explain basic developmental facts.

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Description

Explore the various theories of development in Chapter 2, including psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson. Understand how internal drives and cultural demands shape behavior through different stages of personality development. This chapter provides a comprehensive comparison of these influential theories.