Development Theories Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Theories of Development

• This chapter covers various developmental theories, including psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, biological, and ecological perspectives. It also compares these theories.

Psychoanalytic Theories (Sigmund Freud)

• Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions influence behavior.
• Patient memories are used as primary source material.
• Three personality types: id, ego, superego
• Sexual feelings are part of personality development.
• Freud's psychosexual stages (Table 2.1): Describes stages with associated ages, erogenous zones (focus of libido), and developmental tasks. Fixation at a particular stage can affect adult behavior and personality characteristics.

Psychoanalytic Theories (Erik Erikson)

• Psychosocial theory: Development is influenced by cultural demands and internal drives.
• Each stage requires resolution of a crisis.
• Healthy development needs a balance of positive and negative experiences.
• Erikson's psychosocial stages: (Page 9). Describes eight stages, age ranges, and associated psychosocial crises. Example Crises include Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs Guilt, and Industry vs Inferiority. Successful resolution at each stage contributes to personality development.
• The first four stages lay the foundation for adult personality.
• Adult stages are not tightly bound to age.

Learning Theories

• Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Learning through associations between environmental stimuli and naturally occurring stimuli . A stimulus-response connection. A learned conditioned stimulus elicits a learned conditioned response.
• Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Modifies voluntary behavior. Behaviors are dependent on reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment or extinction.
• Hints for parents and caregivers: Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life. Behavioral change is more likely when consequences follow behavior immediately.
• Observational learning (Albert Bandura): Learning by observing, models can be reinforced or punished for their actions. Observational learning is dependent on attention, memory, physical capabilities, and motivation. The concept of perceived self-efficacy examines people's beliefs in their abilities to produce desired effects.

Cognitive Theories

• Piaget's cognitive theory: Development via action-based processes that progress to changes in mental operations. Schemes, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration are key concepts.
• Piaget's cognitive developmental stages: (page 20): Describing stages of development, such as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Individual rates of development vary.
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: Complex thinking arises from social interactions, not private explorations. Children develop cognitive skills via guided learning by more skilled partners (Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)) and scaffolding.
• Information-processing theory: The computer is used as a model to explain how the mind manages information. Memory is viewed as a three-stage process involving sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory.

Biological Theories

• Behavioral genetics: Examines the genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes. Example questions to ask in this perspective include how genetic factors influence IQ with consideration of age. A review of findings from Dutch twin studies is mentioned in relation to this topic.
• Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms for survival using natural selection as a framework. Imprinting is an example.
• Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary theory to social behavior. "Genetic selfishness" is a prominent concept. - Lorenz, Konrad : His work on imprinting.
• Bioecological theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner): Describes development in terms of relationships between individuals and their environments. A variety of contexts are considered in this theory including the macrosystem, exosystem, microsystem, mesosystem, and biological context.

Comparing Theories

• Theories differ in their assumptions about development, especially in terms of activity, nature versus nurture, stability versus change. (Table 2.7)

Eclecticism (Multiple Theoretical Approaches)

• A multidisciplinary approach that integrates ideas from multiple theories to avoid rigid adherence to one perspective in order to construct more comprehensive theories.

• Evaluation of theories in terms of usefulness and generation of testable predictions.

• A theory's practical value and insights are useful to explain basic developmental facts.

Explore the various theories of development in Chapter 2, including psychoanalytic perspectives from Freud and Erikson. Understand how internal drives and cultural demands shape behavior through different stages of personality development. This chapter provides a comprehensive comparison of these influential theories.