Lifespan Development: Theories (Chapter 2) PDF

Chapter 2: Theories of Development IN THIS CHAPTER Psychoanalytic Theories Learning Theories Cognitive Theories Biological and Ecological Theories Comparing Theories AN OVERVIEW Major Families of Theoretical Perspectives  Psychoanalytic  Learning ...

Chapter 2: Theories of Development IN THIS CHAPTER Psychoanalytic Theories Learning Theories Cognitive Theories Biological and Ecological Theories Comparing Theories AN OVERVIEW Major Families of Theoretical Perspectives  Psychoanalytic  Learning  Cognitive Other Theoretical Trends  Biological  Ecological PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES Sigmund Freud Psychosexual theory: internal drives and emotions influence behavior. Patient memories are used as primary source material. Three personality types: id, ego, superego Sexual feelings are part of personality development. Freud proposed that hidden memories of traumatic childhood events are often hidden or repressed. Memory researchers found that some adults who experienced childhood abuse forget memories related to the abuse—just as Freud predicted. Most people do retain traumatic memories; false memories may be created if repressed memories are explored. Specific training aids therapists to recall concrete evidence for memories. FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian) Psychosocial theory: development is influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives. Each psychosocial stage requires resolution of a crisis. Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative experiences. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian) Stages  The first four stages form the foundation for the adult personality.  Childhood–adulthood transition influential Ages  Adult stages are not strongly tied to age. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES - COMPARISON LEARNING THEORIES Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning: learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus Reflex: stimulus–response connection Learned: conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response. LEARNING THEORIES B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning: deals with modification of voluntary behavior Behaviors dependent on reinforcement  Positive reinforcement  Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction LEARNING THEORIES Hints for Parents and Caregivers Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life. The best chance for behavioral change exists when an appropriate consequence is administered first after the behavior occurs. LEARNING THEORIES Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura Observational learning or modeling: learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for behavior. Dependent on four factors:  Attention  Memory  Physical capabilities  Motivation Modeling is an important source of learning for both children and adults. What behaviors have you learned by watching and copying others? Kathy Sloane/Science Source continued on next slide LEARNING THEORIES Social Cognitive Theory Perceived self-efficacy: people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects Learning  Influenced by perceived similarity to model  Not limited to overt behavior  Comes also from ideas, expectations, internal standards, and self-concepts LEARNING THEORIES COGNITIVE THEORIES Piaget Piaget’s cognitive theory: development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.  Scheme  Assimilation  Accommodation  Equilibration COGNITIVE THEORIES Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage The rate of development differs for individual children. COGNITIVE THEORIES Vygotsky Socio-cultural theory: complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions, not private explorations. Children learn new cognitive skills when guided by a more skilled partner.  Zone of proximal development (ZPD)  Scaffolding COGNITIVE THEORIES Importance of Assisted Discovery Assisted discovery: a child integrates the results of independent discoveries with new knowledge taught in systematic and structured way. What are the educational applications of this kind of learning? COGNITIVE THEORIES Importance of Assisted Discovery Educational Applications Supports active exploration opportunities Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and understandings have not yet surfaced for the learner, but are on edge of emergence COGNITIVE THEORIES Information-processing theory: the computer is used a as model to explain how mind manages information. Three-stage theory of memory  Sensory memory  Short-term or working memory  Long-term memory THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING SYSTEM COGNITIVE THEORIES Neo-Piagetian Theories Piagetian Information-Processing Hybrid Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages Expands (rather than contradicts) Piaget’s theory Agrees that children’s thinking reflects developing internal mental structures Draws on linguistic theories about content domain specificity of cognition COGNITIVE THEORIES BIOLOGICAL THEORIES Behavioral Genetics Behavioral genetics: examines the genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes Can you think of questions that might be addressed using this theoretical perspective? Did you list twin studies in your response? Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch twins. What does this tell you about the influence of heredity and age? Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins OTHER BIOLOGICAL THEORIES Ethology and Sociobiology Ethology: examines genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival through natural selection  Imprinting Sociobiology: application of evolutionary theory to social behavior  “Genetic selfishness” Lorenz found that once a gaggle of newly hatched geese had imprinted on him, they followed him wherever he went. Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY Urie Bronfenbrenner Bioecological theory: explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments Contexts  Macrosystem  Exosystem  Microsystem  Mesosystem  Biological context PLACE YOURSELF IN THE CENTER OF THE MODEL in ch pl at W ur r in a c e ea you wh ha ch yo t p o ic g? r u ld o o ro es mp ? wo Wh ted Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development HOW HAS IT HELPED? An Example Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory has helped researchers better understand how families moderate the effects of potentially damaging experiences, such as living in a refugee camp (like the Mayukwayukwa Camp feeding center for malnourished children in Zambia), on children’s development. COMPARING THEORIES Assumptions about Development Questions Active or passive? Nature or nurture? Stability or change? HOW THEORIES ANSWER THREE QUESTIONS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT WHY ASKING WHICH THEORY IS RIGHT MAY BE WRONG! Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful. Evaluation of usefulness of each theory  Generate predictions that can be tested.  Heuristic value  Practical value  Explanation of basic developmental facts MULTIPLE THEORETICAL APPROACHES Eclecticism Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from multiple sources Avoids rigid adherence to single theory Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories