Demyelination, Synapses and Neurotransmission

In Huntington's Disease, the accumulation of Huntingtin protein, which contains excessive CAG trinucleotide repeats, primarily affects which region of the basal ganglia?

What is the underlying mechanism of hyperkinetic movements such as chorea and athetosis in the early stages of Huntington's Disease?

Which of the following pathophysiological changes contributes to the development of bradykinesia and rigidity in the later stages of Huntington's Disease?

A patient with Huntington's Disease exhibits a lack of behavioral and social inhibitions, such as urinating in public. Which area of the brain is most likely affected to cause this symptom?

What is the most likely cause of visuospatial deficits, such as the inability to accurately judge distances or sizes, in a patient with Huntington's Disease?

Why do patients with Huntington's Disease often develop neuropsychiatric deficits and dementia?

What is the primary genetic defect responsible for Huntington's Disease?

A neuroimaging study reveals enlargement of the lateral ventricles in a patient suspected of having Huntington's Disease. What pathological process is most likely responsible for this finding?

Why is tetrabenazine contraindicated in late-stage Huntington's disease?

Which mechanism primarily explains how excessive glutamate leads to neuronal damage in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?

A patient with ALS exhibits heightened reflexes and increased muscle tone. Which type of motor neuron is primarily affected to cause these symptoms?

What physiological change is the MOST direct cause of death in most Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) patients?

How does tetrabenazine reduce the hyperkinetic movements associated with Huntington's disease?

In a patient with late-stage ALS, which clinical presentation would be MOST indicative of lower motor neuron involvement?

A researcher is investigating potential therapeutic targets for ALS. Which of the following mechanisms would MOST likely provide neuroprotection by addressing the underlying pathophysiology of the disease?

Which of the following describes the effect of Tetrabenazine on the thalamus and cortex in the treatment of Huntington's disease?

A patient presents with continuous tonic-clonic seizures, hyperthermia, hypertension, and tachycardia. Which subtype of status epilepticus is the MOST likely cause?

During an assessment, a patient is observed to be staring blankly and is unresponsive. An EEG confirms epileptiform activity, but there are no apparent motor manifestations. Which type of status epilepticus is the MOST likely cause?

After administering IV benzodiazepines to a patient in status epilepticus with no improvement, which of the following medications should be administered NEXT?

Which of the following mechanisms BEST explains why hemorrhagic strokes increase the risk of seizures?

A college student is admitted with suspected meningitis. Considering the MOST common infectious causes of meningitis in this age group, which pathogen is the HIGHEST on your differential?

A patient with HIV/AIDS presents with new-onset seizures and is suspected of having meningitis. Which infectious agent is MOST likely responsible?

Which of the following BEST describes the mechanism by which hyponatremia leads to seizures?

A patient presents with seizures and a history of Lyme disease. Which infectious agent is MOST likely responsible for their symptoms?

If a neuron's resting membrane potential is -70mV, what alteration to ion channel activity would MOST effectively inhibit neuronal excitability?

Which statement BEST describes the differential roles of AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptors in neuronal signaling?

A novel drug selectively enhances GABAB receptor activity. Which of the following effects would be MOST expected?

Which of the subsequent scenarios would MOST likely induce a seizure?

In a patient experiencing a focal seizure, what is the MOST likely underlying mechanism?

A patient with epilepsy is prescribed a medication that enhances the effect of GABA. Which of the following mechanisms of action would be MOST consistent with this treatment?

During an experiment, a researcher applies a drug that blocks magnesium's ability to bind to and block NMDA receptors. What is the MOST likely result of this action on the neuron's response to glutamate?

In the context of seizure pathophysiology, what is the PRIMARY consequence of synchronized neuronal firing?

Why does abrupt cessation of benzodiazepines in chronic users lead to central nervous system hyperexcitability?

A patient with a history of chronic benzodiazepine abuse presents with anxiety, insomnia, sweating, and tremors. Which additional symptom would suggest progression towards a potentially lethal stage of withdrawal?

Which pharmacological approach is MOST appropriate for managing a patient experiencing severe agitation and autonomic instability during acute alcohol withdrawal?

A chronic alcoholic is admitted exhibiting severe nausea, abdominal pain, and early signs of alcohol withdrawal. What is the MOST likely cause of their gastrointestinal symptoms?

Delirium Tremens (DTs) is characterized by a range of severe symptoms. Which combination of symptoms indicates a patient is experiencing DTs, requiring immediate and intensive medical intervention?

Why does chronic alcohol use lead to decreased GABAA receptor sensitivity?

A patient undergoing benzodiazepine withdrawal develops severe autonomic instability with rapidly escalating hypertension and tachycardia. What is the MOST critical immediate concern in managing this patient?

In managing alcohol withdrawal, why are long-acting benzodiazepines like Chlordiazepoxide preferred over short-acting agents for some patients?

Neuronal edema leads to increased neuronal excitability and seizure activity by altering electrochemical gradients. Which of the following mechanisms is most directly responsible for this effect?

Which of the following scenarios presents the greatest risk of seizures due to primary polydipsia-induced neuronal edema?

A patient taking lithium develops nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. What is the most likely mechanism by which this condition could increase the risk of seizures?

Which of the following best describes the mechanism by which MDMA (ecstasy) increases the risk of seizures?

Ketamine-induced seizures differ from those induced by other common illicit drugs because they are uniquely associated with which of the following mechanisms?

Bupropion, a commonly prescribed drug for smoking cessation and depression, increases seizure risk through which combined mechanisms?

Isoniazid, a drug commonly used in the treatment of tuberculosis, can induce seizures via which of the following mechanisms?

Clozapine, an antipsychotic medication, is known to increase seizure risk. What is the primary mechanism by which clozapine promotes seizure development?

Tetrabenazine mechanism

D2 Receptors

Hyperkinetic features in Huntington's Disease

Glutamate toxicity in ALS

Mitochondrial damage in ALS

Upper Motor Neuronal Symptoms

Common cause of death in ALS

Lower Motor Neuronal Symptoms

Huntingtin protein

Striatum

Lateral ventricles

Hyperkinetic phenotypes

Chorea

Bradykinesia

Non-motor symptoms

Neuropsychiatric deficits

Neuronal edema

Primary polydipsia

Drugs causing seizures

Ketamine's unique action

Bupropion

Flumazenil

Isoniazid and seizures

Benzodiazepine withdrawal

Generalized Convulsive Status Epilepticus

Non-Convulsive Status Epilepticus

Focal Status Epilepticus

Management of Status Epilepticus

First-line treatment for seizures

Hyponatremia's effect on seizures

Infectious causes of seizure: Meningitis

Demyelination and seizures

Benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms

Short-acting benzodiazepines

Long-acting benzodiazepines

Early withdrawal symptoms

Late withdrawal symptoms

Delirium Tremens

Management of benzodiazepine withdrawal

Management of Delirium Tremens

Resting Membrane Potential

AMPA Receptor

NMDA Receptor

GABA_A Receptor

GABA_B Receptor

Excessive Activation by Glutamate

Decreased Inhibition

Focal Seizures