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Questions and Answers
A researcher is evaluating a new treatment for chronic pain. They find a statistically significant p-value of 0.03 and a small effect size (Cohen's d = 0.2). Which of the following interpretations is most appropriate?
A researcher is evaluating a new treatment for chronic pain. They find a statistically significant p-value of 0.03 and a small effect size (Cohen's d = 0.2). Which of the following interpretations is most appropriate?
- The treatment is not effective because the effect size is small, regardless of the p-value.
- The treatment has a statistically significant effect, but the small effect size suggests the clinical importance is limited. (correct)
- The treatment has a large practical effect and should be widely adopted due to the statistical significance.
- The p-value indicates a high likelihood of a Type II error; therefore, further research with a larger sample size is warranted.
In a clinical study comparing a new drug to a placebo, the Number Needed to Treat (NNT) is calculated to be 5. Which of the following statements best describes the meaning of this NNT?
In a clinical study comparing a new drug to a placebo, the Number Needed to Treat (NNT) is calculated to be 5. Which of the following statements best describes the meaning of this NNT?
- 5% of patients taking the new drug will experience a positive outcome.
- The new drug is 5 times more effective than the placebo.
- 5 patients are needed in the study to detect a statistically significant difference between the drug and placebo.
- For every 5 patients treated with the new drug, 1 patient will benefit compared to placebo. (correct)
A physical therapist measures a patient's range of motion (ROM) on three separate occasions within the same day to assess intra-rater reliability. Which statistical measure is most appropriate for quantifying the reliability of these ROM measurements?
A physical therapist measures a patient's range of motion (ROM) on three separate occasions within the same day to assess intra-rater reliability. Which statistical measure is most appropriate for quantifying the reliability of these ROM measurements?
- Pearson Correlation Coefficient
- Relative Risk Reduction
- Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) (correct)
- Cronbach's Alpha
A researcher conducts a study and sets their alpha level to 0.01. What is the implication of using a lower alpha level (compared to 0.05) on the risks of Type I and Type II errors?
A researcher conducts a study and sets their alpha level to 0.01. What is the implication of using a lower alpha level (compared to 0.05) on the risks of Type I and Type II errors?
You are evaluating the validity of a new questionnaire designed to measure patient satisfaction. You analyze the Cronbach's alpha and find it to be 0.95. What does this very high Cronbach's alpha suggest about the questionnaire?
You are evaluating the validity of a new questionnaire designed to measure patient satisfaction. You analyze the Cronbach's alpha and find it to be 0.95. What does this very high Cronbach's alpha suggest about the questionnaire?
In what way does statistical significance relate to clinical meaningfulness when interpreting research results?
In what way does statistical significance relate to clinical meaningfulness when interpreting research results?
What is a common misinterpretation of a p-value of less than 0.05 in statistical analysis?
What is a common misinterpretation of a p-value of less than 0.05 in statistical analysis?
Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies selection bias in a clinical trial?
Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies selection bias in a clinical trial?
What distinguishes consecutive sampling from random sampling?
What distinguishes consecutive sampling from random sampling?
What is the primary challenge in achieving a truly 'representative' sample in clinical research?
What is the primary challenge in achieving a truly 'representative' sample in clinical research?
How does the choice of individuals to participate in a study impact the generalizability of its results?
How does the choice of individuals to participate in a study impact the generalizability of its results?
In what scenario would researchers most likely depend on clinicians to help recruit participants?
In what scenario would researchers most likely depend on clinicians to help recruit participants?
What is a primary consideration when evaluating the generalizability of a study's findings?
What is a primary consideration when evaluating the generalizability of a study's findings?
Why is generalizability considered a continuum rather than a dichotomy in research?
Why is generalizability considered a continuum rather than a dichotomy in research?
What challenges are magnified when researchers recruit participants from numerous and geographically dispersed locations?
What challenges are magnified when researchers recruit participants from numerous and geographically dispersed locations?
In the context of research, why is it problematic to equate within-group mean change with the 'treatment effect'?
In the context of research, why is it problematic to equate within-group mean change with the 'treatment effect'?
A study finds a significant within-group improvement in pain scores following a new therapy. What is the most critical consideration when interpreting this finding?
A study finds a significant within-group improvement in pain scores following a new therapy. What is the most critical consideration when interpreting this finding?
In a randomized controlled trial, a statistically significant difference in outcome scores is observed between a treatment group and a control group. What does this difference primarily quantify?
In a randomized controlled trial, a statistically significant difference in outcome scores is observed between a treatment group and a control group. What does this difference primarily quantify?
A physical therapy clinic is conducting a study to determine if a new rehabilitation program improves patient outcomes post-ACL surgery. They measure knee extension strength (in Nm) at baseline and again after 12 weeks of the program. Which statistical test should be used to determine if there is a significant change within the group?
A physical therapy clinic is conducting a study to determine if a new rehabilitation program improves patient outcomes post-ACL surgery. They measure knee extension strength (in Nm) at baseline and again after 12 weeks of the program. Which statistical test should be used to determine if there is a significant change within the group?
A researcher is investigating the relationship between exercise duration (in minutes) and perceived exertion (on a scale of 1-10) in healthy adults. Data is collected from 75 participants. Which statistical test should be used to determine the strength and direction of the linear association between these two continuous variables?
A researcher is investigating the relationship between exercise duration (in minutes) and perceived exertion (on a scale of 1-10) in healthy adults. Data is collected from 75 participants. Which statistical test should be used to determine the strength and direction of the linear association between these two continuous variables?
A study aims to identify predictors of successful return to sport (yes/no) after shoulder surgery in athletes. Potential predictors include age, pre-injury activity level, and surgical technique. Data is collected from 150 athletes. Which statistical test should be used to determine which variables are associated with successful return to sport?
A study aims to identify predictors of successful return to sport (yes/no) after shoulder surgery in athletes. Potential predictors include age, pre-injury activity level, and surgical technique. Data is collected from 150 athletes. Which statistical test should be used to determine which variables are associated with successful return to sport?
Researchers want to understand if the type of footwear (athletic shoes vs. minimalist shoes) influences the incidence of stress fractures in long-distance runners. Runners are categorized into two groups based on their preferred footwear, and the occurrence of stress fractures is recorded (yes/no). Which statistical test should be used to determine whether footwear type predicts the incidence of stress fractures?
Researchers want to understand if the type of footwear (athletic shoes vs. minimalist shoes) influences the incidence of stress fractures in long-distance runners. Runners are categorized into two groups based on their preferred footwear, and the occurrence of stress fractures is recorded (yes/no). Which statistical test should be used to determine whether footwear type predicts the incidence of stress fractures?
A researcher is studying the impact of different types of exercise (cycling, swimming, running) on reducing resting heart rate (measured in beats per minute). Participants are randomly assigned to one of the three exercise groups, and resting heart rate is measured after 8 weeks of training. Which statistical test should be used to determine if there are significant differences in resting heart rate among the three groups?
A researcher is studying the impact of different types of exercise (cycling, swimming, running) on reducing resting heart rate (measured in beats per minute). Participants are randomly assigned to one of the three exercise groups, and resting heart rate is measured after 8 weeks of training. Which statistical test should be used to determine if there are significant differences in resting heart rate among the three groups?
In the context of interpreting research outcomes, what is the primary distinction between 'change' and 'difference' findings?
In the context of interpreting research outcomes, what is the primary distinction between 'change' and 'difference' findings?
Why is it essential to consider clinical meaningfulness alongside statistical significance when interpreting outcome scores in research or practice?
Why is it essential to consider clinical meaningfulness alongside statistical significance when interpreting outcome scores in research or practice?
What is the most important factor when determining the 'treatment effect' from a research paper?
What is the most important factor when determining the 'treatment effect' from a research paper?
What is the danger of reporting conclusions based on within-group changes in randomized controlled trials?
What is the danger of reporting conclusions based on within-group changes in randomized controlled trials?
A physical therapist reads a study reporting a significant within-group improvement in range of motion following a new stretching protocol. What should the therapist consider before adopting this protocol in their clinical practice?
A physical therapist reads a study reporting a significant within-group improvement in range of motion following a new stretching protocol. What should the therapist consider before adopting this protocol in their clinical practice?
A study finds that the average pain score in a treatment group decreased by 2 points on a 10-point scale, while the pain score in a control group remained unchanged. What additional information is needed to determine if the treatment had a meaningful effect?
A study finds that the average pain score in a treatment group decreased by 2 points on a 10-point scale, while the pain score in a control group remained unchanged. What additional information is needed to determine if the treatment had a meaningful effect?
What should be done to interpret an article's results effectively?
What should be done to interpret an article's results effectively?
In a study comparing a new drug to a placebo for pain relief, researchers observe a statistically significant difference in pain scores (p < 0.05). However, the 95% confidence intervals for the mean difference in pain scores between the drug and placebo groups include zero. What is the most accurate interpretation of these results?
In a study comparing a new drug to a placebo for pain relief, researchers observe a statistically significant difference in pain scores (p < 0.05). However, the 95% confidence intervals for the mean difference in pain scores between the drug and placebo groups include zero. What is the most accurate interpretation of these results?
A researcher is analyzing the impact of a new exercise program on cardiovascular health. They measure participants' VO2 max (maximum oxygen consumption) before and after the program. Considering the data is normally distributed, which statistical approach is most appropriate to determine if there is a significant change in VO2 max?
A researcher is analyzing the impact of a new exercise program on cardiovascular health. They measure participants' VO2 max (maximum oxygen consumption) before and after the program. Considering the data is normally distributed, which statistical approach is most appropriate to determine if there is a significant change in VO2 max?
A physical therapist is evaluating the effectiveness of three different rehabilitation protocols (A, B, and C) on improving range of motion in patients following shoulder surgery. Patients are randomly assigned to one of the three protocols. Which statistical test is most suitable for comparing the mean range of motion across the three groups?
A physical therapist is evaluating the effectiveness of three different rehabilitation protocols (A, B, and C) on improving range of motion in patients following shoulder surgery. Patients are randomly assigned to one of the three protocols. Which statistical test is most suitable for comparing the mean range of motion across the three groups?
A researcher is investigating the relationship between sedentary behavior (hours per day) and body mass index (BMI) in a group of adolescents. Both sedentary behavior and BMI are continuous variables. Which statistical analysis is most appropriate for determining the strength and direction of the linear relationship between these two variables?
A researcher is investigating the relationship between sedentary behavior (hours per day) and body mass index (BMI) in a group of adolescents. Both sedentary behavior and BMI are continuous variables. Which statistical analysis is most appropriate for determining the strength and direction of the linear relationship between these two variables?
In a study examining factors influencing patient adherence to a medication regimen, the researchers want to determine whether patient age, education level (years), and income (annual dollars) predict whether a patient will adhere to the prescribed medication (adherent/non-adherent). Which statistical test is most appropriate for this analysis?
In a study examining factors influencing patient adherence to a medication regimen, the researchers want to determine whether patient age, education level (years), and income (annual dollars) predict whether a patient will adhere to the prescribed medication (adherent/non-adherent). Which statistical test is most appropriate for this analysis?
A researcher is analyzing the effectiveness of a new drug on reducing blood pressure. They collect data on systolic blood pressure before and after the treatment. The data is found to be highly skewed due to some participants having extreme values. Which measure of central tendency and variability is most appropriate?
A researcher is analyzing the effectiveness of a new drug on reducing blood pressure. They collect data on systolic blood pressure before and after the treatment. The data is found to be highly skewed due to some participants having extreme values. Which measure of central tendency and variability is most appropriate?
A study reports a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference in pain scores between a treatment group and a control group as [-2.5, 0.5]. What is the correct interpretation of this confidence interval?
A study reports a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference in pain scores between a treatment group and a control group as [-2.5, 0.5]. What is the correct interpretation of this confidence interval?
In a study examining the impact of a new educational intervention on student test scores, the researchers perform a t-test to compare the mean scores of students in the intervention group versus a control group. The resulting p-value is 0.06. Assuming a significance level of alpha = 0.05, what is the most appropriate conclusion?
In a study examining the impact of a new educational intervention on student test scores, the researchers perform a t-test to compare the mean scores of students in the intervention group versus a control group. The resulting p-value is 0.06. Assuming a significance level of alpha = 0.05, what is the most appropriate conclusion?
Researchers conduct a study to determine if there is a relationship between daily step count and systolic blood pressure. After collecting data from 150 participants, they calculate a Pearson correlation coefficient of -0.65 with a corresponding p-value of 0.001. What is the most appropriate interpretation of these results?
Researchers conduct a study to determine if there is a relationship between daily step count and systolic blood pressure. After collecting data from 150 participants, they calculate a Pearson correlation coefficient of -0.65 with a corresponding p-value of 0.001. What is the most appropriate interpretation of these results?
A rehabilitation center aims to predict a patient's length of stay (in days) based on several factors, including age, number of comorbidities, and initial functional independence measure (FIM) score. Which statistical method should be used?
A rehabilitation center aims to predict a patient's length of stay (in days) based on several factors, including age, number of comorbidities, and initial functional independence measure (FIM) score. Which statistical method should be used?
You're examining the impact of a new drug on cognitive function, measured by test scores. The data show a non-normal distribution. Which statistical measure is optimal for representing the 'typical' score?
You're examining the impact of a new drug on cognitive function, measured by test scores. The data show a non-normal distribution. Which statistical measure is optimal for representing the 'typical' score?
In a clinical trial, researchers want to assess if there’s a significant change in patients' pain levels after a new physical therapy intervention. They measure pain on a visual analog scale (VAS) before and after the intervention. What statistical test should they use?
In a clinical trial, researchers want to assess if there’s a significant change in patients' pain levels after a new physical therapy intervention. They measure pain on a visual analog scale (VAS) before and after the intervention. What statistical test should they use?
Researchers aim to identify predictors of successful return to sport after ACL reconstruction. They collect data on variables such as age, pre-injury activity level, and psychological readiness, and want to determine which factors best predict whether an athlete returns to sport within one year. The outcome variable is binary (returned to sport/did not return to sport).
Researchers aim to identify predictors of successful return to sport after ACL reconstruction. They collect data on variables such as age, pre-injury activity level, and psychological readiness, and want to determine which factors best predict whether an athlete returns to sport within one year. The outcome variable is binary (returned to sport/did not return to sport).
A researcher is investigating the effectiveness of different exercise intensities (low, moderate, high) on weight loss. Participants are randomly assigned to one of the three exercise groups, and weight loss (in kilograms) is measured after 12 weeks. Which statistical test is most appropriate for comparing the mean weight loss across the three groups?
A researcher is investigating the effectiveness of different exercise intensities (low, moderate, high) on weight loss. Participants are randomly assigned to one of the three exercise groups, and weight loss (in kilograms) is measured after 12 weeks. Which statistical test is most appropriate for comparing the mean weight loss across the three groups?
In a clinical study evaluating the effectiveness of a new drug, the researchers report a 95% confidence interval for the treatment effect that ranges from -1.5 to 0.8. Interpreting this interval, which conclusion is most accurate?
In a clinical study evaluating the effectiveness of a new drug, the researchers report a 95% confidence interval for the treatment effect that ranges from -1.5 to 0.8. Interpreting this interval, which conclusion is most accurate?
Flashcards
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Describes data without making comparisons. Summarizes characteristics of a dataset.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Estimates population characteristics based on a sample. Allows for generalizations and hypothesis testing.
Reliability
Reliability
Indicates the consistency of a measurement. High reliability means similar results under consistent conditions.
Intra-rater Reliability
Intra-rater Reliability
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Inter-rater Reliability
Inter-rater Reliability
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Average Values
Average Values
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Parametric Statistics
Parametric Statistics
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Non-Parametric Statistics
Non-Parametric Statistics
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Confidence Interval
Confidence Interval
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Baseline Characteristics
Baseline Characteristics
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T-Test
T-Test
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Paired Samples T-Test
Paired Samples T-Test
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ANOVA
ANOVA
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Correlation
Correlation
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Linear Regression
Linear Regression
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Independent Predictor
Independent Predictor
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Dependent Variable
Dependent Variable
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Binary Logistic Regression
Binary Logistic Regression
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Paired Sample T-Test
Paired Sample T-Test
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Paired t-test
Paired t-test
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Multinomial Logistic Regression
Multinomial Logistic Regression
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Outcomes Assessment
Outcomes Assessment
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Change (within-group)
Change (within-group)
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Difference (between-group)
Difference (between-group)
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Treatment Effect
Treatment Effect
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Within-group change factors
Within-group change factors
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Between-group change
Between-group change
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Outcome (Construct Level)
Outcome (Construct Level)
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Interpreting an outcome score
Interpreting an outcome score
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Change in Clinical Practice
Change in Clinical Practice
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Change in Research
Change in Research
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Clinically Meaningful Difference
Clinically Meaningful Difference
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P-value
P-value
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Statistically Significant Difference
Statistically Significant Difference
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Representative Sample
Representative Sample
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Random Sampling
Random Sampling
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Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive Sampling
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Selection Bias
Selection Bias
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Generalizability
Generalizability
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Randomized Controlled Trial
Randomized Controlled Trial
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Continuum
Continuum
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Study Notes
Data Distribution
- Data distribution can be normal or skewed and dictates the use of descriptive statistics.
- Normal distribution allows for parametric statistics, using the mean and standard deviation.
- Skewed data requires non-parametric statistics, using the median.
- In normally distributed data, the median and mean are close, while in skewed data, they differ significantly.
Descriptive Statistics
- Describe data without making comparisons, including average values, common values, data variability, and the range of values.
Inferential Statistics
- Involves drawing conclusions about a population based on sample data.
- Includes hypothesis testing, such as t-tests, ANOVA, correlation, and regression analyses.
Confidence Intervals
- Usually reported as 95% confidence intervals.
- They estimate the range within which the true population mean lies, based on the sample mean.
Baseline Characteristics
- Ensures that participants and data are similar at the beginning of a study.
Hypothesis Testing
- Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) is a method of comparing different treatment groups.
T-Tests
- Used to compare two groups for statistically significant differences.
- Requires continuous data and a p-value less than 0.05 to indicate significance.
- Paired Samples T-Test compares changes within an individual.
ANOVA
- Compares multiple groups to assess variance.
- Useful for comparing multiple treatments or changes over time.
Correlation
- Examines the relationships between two continuous variables within the same individuals.
- Determines how one variable relates to changes in another.
Linear Regression
- Explores relationships between multiple variables, identifying independent predictors.
- Independent predictors significantly relate to the outcome of interest, even when controlling for other factors.
- Dependent Variable is what you are trying to predict in the study
Binary Logistic Regression
- Groups data based on independent predictors, useful for binary outcomes.
- Useful for comparing different groups of individuals
- Multinomial logistic regression places groups into more than two groups
Statistical Analysis Scenarios & Solutions
- Scenario 1: To determine if strength changes over time after a 12-week resistance training program, use a Paired Sample T-test
- Scenario 2: To determine whether age, physical activity level and BMI predict FIM scores at hospital discharge, use Multiple Linear Regression
- Scenario 3: To compare knee ROM across three groups after different physical therapy interventions (manual therapy, exercise therapy, and electrical stimulation) use ANOVA
- Scenario 4: To compare mean pain scores between a physical therapy group and a no-treatment control group, use an Independent t-test
- Scenario 5: To determine if balance test scores significantly improve after six weeks, use a Paired T Test
- Scenario 6: To determine the relationship between strength and gait speed, use Correlation
- Scenario 7: To determine which variables are associated with an increased risk of falls, use Multi nominal logistic regression
- Scenario 8: To determine whether adherence predicts pain reduction, use Binary logistic regression
- Scenario 9: To determine if quadriceps strength differs among the three groups, use ANOVA
Interpreting Outcomes: Change vs Difference
- Change is the score difference within a person or group over time.
- Difference compares data from two groups, representing the treatment effect.
- Important to distinguish between within-group change and between-group difference when interpreting study results.
Statistical Significance vs Clinical Meaningfulness
- Clinicians, researchers, patients, and payers are interested in these constructs such as: pain, function, disability etc.
- Statistical significance is indicated by the p-value.
- Clinical meaningfulness refers to a difference large enough for patients to consider important, while statistical significance relates to the likelihood of the observed difference being due to chance. Studies should aim for both.
Sampling Methods
- The goal of any sample method is to recruit a "representative" sample
- Random sampling provides everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
- Consecutive sampling recruits everyone who meets the study criteria at a certain place during a defined period. Researchers invite everyone who meets the study inclusion criteria until they reach their required sample size
- Selection bias is reduced by ensuring everyone who meets the criteria participates
- Generalizability exists on a continuum; study findings are more or less generalizable.
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Description
Understand data distribution, descriptive statistics, and inferential statistics. Learn about normal vs skewed data. Explore confidence intervals and the importance of baseline characteristics in data analysis.
