Questions and Answers
What are the six core critical thinking skills identified in the text?
Define critical thinking according to The Open University handbook.
Critical thinking is defined as 'a practice critically examining ideas, evaluating them against what you already know and making decisions about their merit while maintaining an objective position.'
Correctness in writing involves the use of good grammar, spelling, and __________.
punctuation
A Declarative Sentence is used to ask a question.
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What is an issue according to the text?
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Which of the following is a misconception about issues?
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Factual issues have established methods or criteria for solving them.
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______ issues do not have standards for settling matters.
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Match the type of issue with its description:
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What factors can affect the credibility of claims and sources?
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What is an important indicator of a person's expertise?
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What is a problem with relying solely on experts' opinions?
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A majority opinion is always correct.
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What is the purpose of rhetorical devices?
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What is an example of a euphemism?
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Hyperbole is an extreme _______________________.
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What is an innuendo?
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What is the purpose of a loaded question?
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What is the Latin name for Appeal to Fear?
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Which fallacy is committed when only two choices are presented yet more exist?
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Misplaced Vividness is a fallacy that occurs when statistical evidence is given more weight than vivid events.
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In a __________ argument, the conclusion is logically deduced from the premises.
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Match the argument forms with their descriptions:
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What is the form of Modus Ponens?
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Inductive arguments provide only probable support for the conclusion.
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Disjunctive syllogism requires at least one of the __________ to be true to make the argument valid.
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Match the following philosophical terms with their definitions:
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What is an emotive expression?
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Define sentence fragment.
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What does an optative sentence express?
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Ambiguity in a sentence means it has only one interpretation.
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A sentence fragment lacks a ________.
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Match the type of argument with its description:
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Which type of argument is described as a deductive argument all of whose propositions are true?
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In a deductively valid argument, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
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Define a formal fallacy.
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All humans have ______. All gorillas have ______. Therefore, all gorillas are humans.
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What makes an inductive argument strong?
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What defines a valid argument?
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Valid arguments are always considered good arguments.
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Define a sound argument.
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Valid arguments are good arguments and their premises ________ their conclusions.
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What is the fallacy known as denying the antecedent?
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What is the form of the fallacy of denying the antecedent?
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Having a headache is the only symptom of having malaria.
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What fallacy is committed when the propositions p and r switch positions in the conclusion of a ______?
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Match the fallacy with its description:
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Study Notes
Critical Thinking and Clear Writing
- Critical thinking is a practice critically examining ideas, evaluating them against what you already know, and making decisions about their merit while maintaining an 'objective' position.
- Core critical thinking skills:
- Interpretation: understanding the expression and significance of various experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.
- Analysis: identifying intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, and descriptions.
- Inference: identifying elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions, form hypotheses, consider relevant information, and deduce consequences flowing from data, statements, and principles.
- Evaluation: assessing credibility of statements or information and making judgments in a clear, objective, and thoughtful manner.
- Explanation: presenting a cogent and coherent presentation of one's own reasoning or opinion of other people's account of an event.
- Self-Regulation: monitoring one's cognitive activities, elements used in those activities, and the results deduced from them.
Relevance of Critical Thinking
- Critical thinking is important in everyday activities, such as problem-solving and decision-making.
- Critical thinking promotes creativity by evaluating and selecting new ideas and solutions.
- Critical thinking is essential for self-examination, reflection on values, decisions, and beliefs.
- Critical thinking underpins science and governance, requiring citizens to think critically and rationally.
Clear Writing
- Clear writing is the presentation of information that is easy for everyone to understand.
- Ingredients of clear writing:
- Correctness: using good grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
- Clarity: using sentences and words that communicate effectively without confusion.
- Conciseness: being economical with words and avoiding unnecessary expressions.
- Coherence: ensuring logical sequence, flow, and continuity in writing.
- Control: achieving unity in the entire write-up, bringing together all other vital ingredients.
Importance of Clear Writing
- Clear writing helps to communicate messages plainly and effectively.
- Clear writing makes the meaning of writing clear and does not confuse or bore readers.
Sentences and Ambiguities
- Sentences can be classified into different types, including:
- Interrogative Sentence: asks a question.
- Imperative Sentence: expresses a command.
- Declarative Sentence: makes a statement or conveys information.
- Emotive Expression: communicates feelings, emotions, and attitudes.
- Sentence Fragment: has only a subject without an attribute or predicate.
- Ambiguities can occur in sentences, leading to multiple meanings in a given context.
- Two types of expressions that lead to ambiguity: amphiboly and equivocation.
Meaning of Argument
- In critical thinking, an argument is a list of statements, one of which is a conclusion, and the others are premises or assumptions.
- Premises provide evidence or support for the conclusion.
- Types of arguments:
- Deductive argument: premises are claimed to support the conclusion in such a way that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
- Inductive argument: premises provide some grounds for the conclusion, with varying degrees of likelihood.
Critical Thinking Skills and Argumentation
- Critical thinking skills are essential for constructing and evaluating arguments.
- Critical thinking involves analyzing arguments, identifying premises and conclusions, and evaluating the support provided by premises for conclusions.### Inductive Arguments
- An inductive argument is an argument that provides good but not conclusive evidence for a conclusion
- The premises of an inductive argument confer degrees of likelihood or probability on the conclusion, but do not ensure its truth
- Inductive arguments often attempt to reach a conclusion about all members of a class based on observations of only some of them
- Example: "The vast majority of football fans are fanatics. Commey is a football fan. Therefore, Commey is a fanatic."
Identifying Arguments
- An argument occurs when a speaker intends to use a set of propositions to support or prove a proposition
- Inference indicators signal the presence of an argument
- There are two kinds of inference indicators: premise indicators and conclusion indicators
- Premise indicators include words or phrases such as "for", "since", "because", etc.
- Conclusion indicators include words or phrases such as "therefore", "it follows that", "consequently", etc.
Issues
- An issue is a matter of controversy or a point in dispute, question, or matter that is up for discussion
- Issues can be raised in questions, such as "Should I buy a new car?" or "Is John Mahama taller than Ibrahim Mahama?"
- Issues can also be raised using the word "whether", such as "Whether I should buy a new car" or "Whether John Mahama is taller than Ibrahim Mahama"
Factual and Non-Factual Issues
- Factual issues have established methods of solving them, and can be settled by appealing to established standards or criteria
- Non-factual issues cannot be settled by appealing to established methods or criteria, and are often subjective or opinion-based
- Example: "Is John Mahama taller than Ibrahim Mahama?" is a factual issue, while "Is John Mahama more handsome than Ibrahim Mahama?" is a non-factual issue
Credibility of Claims and Rhetorical Devices
- Claims and sources can lack credibility
- Credibility can be assessed based on factors such as the person's knowledge or expertise, truthfulness, objectivity, or accuracy
- Irrelevant factors such as physical characteristics, gender, height, ethnicity, accent, mannerisms, and mode of dressing should not be used to judge credibility
- Relevant indicators of credibility include established methods or criteria, personal observation, and background information
Assessing Credibility of Claims
- A claim can lack credibility if it conflicts with our observation, our background information, or other credible claims
- Our observation is the most reliable source of information, but can be unreliable if made under poor conditions or influenced by biases
- Background information is information we have acquired from facts we learn on our own or from others, and can be used to evaluate the credibility of a claim
- Claims that conflict with our background information are often dismissed, unless stronger evidence is later employed to defend its plausibility
Assessing Credibility of Sources
- A person's credibility can be assessed based on their knowledge or expertise, truthfulness, objectivity, or accuracy
- Education, experience, accomplishments, reputation, and position can be indicators of expertise
- However, experts can be biased or opinionated, and their opinions should be scrutinized and evaluated critically
- News media, such as newspapers, new magazines, radios, TV, and the internet, can be sources of credible information, but should also be evaluated critically and isolated from biases and rumors.### Rhetorical Devices and Techniques
- Rhetorical devices are words or phrases that manipulate their emotive force to influence beliefs and attitudes
- Examples of rhetorical devices include euphemism, dysphemism, hyperbole, innuendo, sarcasm, and stereotyping
- Rhetorical devices can strengthen, elevate, or weaken the subject and are often used for literary effects
Euphemism and Dysphemism
- Euphemism is the use of a mild, indirect, and vague expression in place of a harsh, blunt, or offensive term
- Examples of euphemisms include "delivery system" for "missile", "passed away" for "death", and "adult entertainment" for "pornography"
- Dysphemism is the use of a harsh, more offensive expression instead of a considered less harsh one
- Examples of dysphemisms include "payment of non-work" for "welfare", "snail mail" for "postal mail", and "cancer stick" for "cigarette"
Hyperbole
- Hyperbole is an extreme exaggeration used to make a point
- Not all extreme claims are hyperboles; only those that are obviously exaggerated
- Hyperbole can turn up in other persuasive maneuvers, such as dysphemism, persuasive comparison, and ridicule
Innuendo
- Innuendo is a technique that implies something without directly saying it
- It is often critical, disparaging, or salacious in nature and is used to create a certain effect on the listener
Sarcasm
- Sarcasm is an indirect form of speech used to produce a dramatic effect on the listener
- It is often used to ridicule or mock someone or something
- Irony is different from sarcasm, although they are related
Stereotyping
- Stereotyping is when someone lumps people under one name or description, often beginning with "the"
- It can serve an interest, such as demonstrating superiority or justifying war
- Stereotypes can be misleading and unfair
Loaded Questions
- A loaded question is a rhetorical device couched as a question to limit direct replies to those that serve the questioner's agenda
- Examples include "Have you stopped stealing?" which assumes the respondent has stolen before
Psychological and Related Fallacies
- Psychological fallacies include appeal to anger, appeal to fear, appeal to pity, and appeal to popularity
- Examples of psychological fallacies include using emotions to persuade instead of evidence, and assuming popularity means something is good or true
Fallacies of Distraction
- Fallacies of distraction include appeal to ignorance, false dilemma, and slippery slope
- Examples of fallacies of distraction include assuming lack of evidence means something is false, and suggesting one event will inevitably lead to another without evidence
Fallacies of Changing the Subject
- Fallacies of changing the subject include appeal to false authority, appeal to force or threat, fallacy of personal attack, and straw man fallacy
- Examples of fallacies of changing the subject include using an authority who is not an expert, threatening instead of reasoning, attacking someone's character instead of their argument, and misrepresenting someone's position
Fallacies of Induction
- Fallacies of induction include circular reasoning, hasty generalization, and misplaced vividness
- Examples of fallacies of induction include supporting a proposition with the same proposition, drawing a conclusion from a small sample size, and taking vivid events to outweigh statistical evidence
Varieties of Argument
- Deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is logically deduced from its premises
- Inductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supported by its premises but is not logically deduced
- Deductive arguments are necessarily valid arguments because their premises provide conclusive grounds for their conclusion
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Description
This course text covers critical thinking and practical reasoning concepts, including clear writing, credibility of claims, argument varieties, anatomy of arguments, causal arguments, and causation. It is written by multiple authors from the Department of Classics and Philosophy.
