Criminology: The Study of Crime
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of trait theory in relation to criminality?

  • Only psychological factors are responsible for criminal behavior.
  • Criminality is solely a result of societal influences.
  • Criminality arises from abnormal biological and/or psychological traits. (correct)
  • All individuals have equal genetic predispositions toward crime.

    • Which of the following best describes reintegrative shaming?

  • It is primarily focused on punishing the offender severely.
  • It incorporates forgiveness and reconnection with the community. (correct)
  • It involves permanent social exclusion of offenders.
  • It consists of prolonged humiliation of the offender.

    • What does the sociobiological theory propose regarding criminal behavior?

  • It is completely independent of genetic influences.
  • Biological and genetic conditions shape how social behaviors are learned. (correct)
  • Criminality can only arise from economic factors.
  • Behavioral tendencies are strictly learned without any biological influence.

    • How does the incapacitation effect aim to reduce recidivism?

    <p>By keeping offenders in jail to prevent them from committing more crimes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of an inadequate diet according to contemporary trait theory?

    <p>Development of high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do neurotransmitters play in relation to criminal behavior?

    <p>Abnormal levels can impact brain functions and associated behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In adoption studies, what correlation is being investigated regarding criminal behavior?

    <p>The relationship between biological parents' behaviors and their children, despite no contact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) related to crime involvement?

    <p>There is a possible link between FASD and increased crime risk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested as a cause for differences in crime rates between genders?

    <p>Inherent behaviors developed over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to psychodynamics, what influences criminal behavior?

    <p>Childhood events and frustration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the social learning theory state about aggressive behaviors?

    <p>They develop through observing others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emphasized by the cognitive theory regarding behavior?

    <p>Mental processes shape perception and decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the nature versus nurture debate, which stance claims intelligence is genetically determined?

    <p>Nature theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do primary prevention programs aim to do?

    <p>Treat underlying problems before they lead to crime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a psychological trait influencing behavior?

    <p>Genetic inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the conventional view described in relation to mental disorders and violence?

    <p>No significant association exists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three components that, when combined, increase the likelihood of a crime occurring?

    <p>Motivated offenders, suitable targets, lack of capable guardians</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rational choice theory suggests that delinquent and criminal behaviors are the result of which process?

    <p>Rational decision-making weighing consequences and benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the term 'displacement' in the context of crime prevention?

    <p>Shifting illegal activities from one area to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'brutalization effect' refer to in the context of capital punishment?

    <p>The potential for more violent behavior in society following an execution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory that increasing the number of police officers should reduce crime rates is known as which of the following?

    <p>General deterrence theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept explains how crime prevention efforts in one area can unintentionally reduce crime in another area?

    <p>Diffusion of benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Situational crime prevention primarily focuses on which of the following approaches?

    <p>Reducing opportunities for crime by modifying the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'structuring criminality' in the context of influencing desistance from crime?

    <p>Offering attractive and legal income opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of criminology?

    <p>The study of criminal behavior: nature, extent, cause, and control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory posits that serious violent offenders inherit criminal traits?

    <p>Lombrosian Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'Anomie' refer to in criminology?

    <p>The chaos and moral uncertainty resulting from a lack of norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sources is NOT a primary source of crime statistics?

    <p>Psychological assessments of offenders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an inherent weakness of Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)?

    <p>UCR omits crimes that are not reported to the police</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'Victim precipitation theory' suggest about victims?

    <p>Victims may unintentionally provoke their own victimization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In criminology, what does the term 'Actus Reus' refer to?

    <p>The physical act of committing a crime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines 'Mala In Se'?

    <p>Acts that are inherently evil and depraved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Routine activities theory' suggest in relation to crime?

    <p>Predatory crime is influenced by the availability of victims and absence of capable guardians</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Criminology: The Study of Crime

    • Criminology is the study of criminal behavior including its nature, extent, causes, and controls.

    • Classical Criminological Theory suggests that people rationally choose between criminal and lawful activities. Criminal choices may be more appealing than lawful ones. Fear of punishment can deter criminal activity. The severity, certainty, and swiftness of punishment are key to controlling criminal behavior.

    • Biological Determinism:

      • Cesare Lombroso, known as the "father of criminology", believed serious violent offenders possessed inherited criminal traits and "atavistic anomalies".

    • Biosocial Theory focuses on the interplay between biological and social factors related to crime.

    • Sociological Criminology examines the connection between social factors and criminal behavior.

      • Adolphe Quetelet utilized social statistics to research social factors related to crime. Age and gender were strongly linked to criminal activity.

    • Anomie: Refers to a lack of norms or clear social standards.

    • Anomic Society: Characterized by chaos, moral uncertainty, and the loss of traditional values.

    • Crime is a reaction to an environment that hinders healthy human relationships.

    Major Criminological Concepts

    • Criminologists specialize in various areas including criminal statistics, the sociology of law, theory construction, criminal behavior systems, penology, and victimology.

    • Precedent is established when a specific rule is successfully applied in multiple similar cases.

    • Common Law emerges when precedents are widely applied in similar cases.

    • Mala in Se refers to acts that are inherently evil and depraved.

    • Mala Prohibitum refers to crimes defined by Parliament, reflecting existing social conditions.

    Types of Offenses

    • Indictable Offenses are the most serious crimes.
    • Summary Offenses are less serious crimes.

    Elements of a Crime

    • Actus Reus: The guilty act.
    • Mens Rea: The guilty mind.

    Crime Statistics and Sources

    • There are three primary sources for collecting crime statistics:
      • Uniform Crime Reporting Surveys (UCR) and Crime Severity Index (CSI) Reporting: They provide data on the number of offenses in a jurisdiction, and are required to be reported monthly. Data is shared with the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics (CCJS).
      • Revised Uniformed Crime Report: Gathers more detailed information about each criminal incident.
      • Victim Surveys: Collected through surveys such as the General Social Survey (GSS). They capture information on unreported crimes and victim characteristics.
      • Self-Report Surveys focus on the offender's personal characteristics.

    Strengths and Weaknesses of Crime Data Sources

    • Strengths:

      • UCR and CSI provide data on murders and arrests.
      • GSS-VS includes information on victims' personal characteristics and unreported crimes.
      • Self-reporting surveys offer personal characteristics of the offender.

    • Weaknesses:

      • UCR omits unreported crimes.
      • GSS-VS has a limited sample size and omits data on important crime patterns, such as murder and drug abuse.
      • Self-reporting surveys rely on the honesty of the offender.

    Victimization and Victimology

    • Victimization: The process of becoming a victim.
    • Victimology: The scientific study of victims and victimization.

    Victim Characteristics and Victim Precipitation Theory

    • Victim Characteristics: Factors including household, income, age, gender, mental health, social status, marital status, race, and ethnicity.
    • Victim Precipitation Theory: Individuals may contribute to their victimization through their actions.
      • Active Precipitation: The victim provokes the situation through threats, fighting words, or initiating an attack.
      • Passive Precipitation: The victim possesses a characteristic that unknowingly threatens or challenges the offender.

    Routine Activities Theory

    • The volume and distribution of predatory crime are linked to the interplay of these three factors:
      • Suitable Targets:
      • Absence of Capable Guardians:
      • Motivated Offenders:

    Rational Choice Theory

    • Delinquent and criminal behaviors stem from a rational decision-making process where potential consequences and benefits are weighed.
    • Development of Rational Choice Theory: Originated from classical criminology, emphasizing the link between crime and punishment.
    • Criminality: Considered the product of careful thought and planning.

    Structuring Criminality:

    • Offenders may desist from crime if future criminal earnings are low and attractive legal opportunities exist.

    • Offenders are motivated to commit crimes if they know successful criminals who have made substantial gains.

    • Situational Crime Prevention: proactive approach to crime prevention that aims to reduce opportunities for crimes by increasing risks and decreasing rewards.

    Geographic Profiling

    • Geographic profiling is an investigative methodology that analyzes crime locations to pinpoint the offender's most likely residence.

    Consequences of Crime Prevention:

    • Displacement: When efforts to control crime in one area shift illegal activities to another.
    • Extinction: The crime prevention method initially appears to be effective, but its impact fades as criminals adapt.
    • Diffusion of Benefits: Efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent others.
    • Discouragement: Limiting access to one target reduces other types of crime.

    Deterrence Theory

    • General Deterrence/Theory: The certainty of arrest and conviction should lower crime rates.
    • Crime persists due to the low chance of arrest and police reluctance to make arrests even when aware of wrongdoing.

    Deterrence Theory Implications:

    • Increasing the number of police should reduce the crime rate.
    • Brutalization Effect: Capital punishment may increase rather than decrease violence in society.
    • Certainty, swiftness, and proportionality of punishment are essential for deterrence.

    Shaming in Deterrence

    • Stigmatization: Sustained humiliation and degradation, marking the offender as evil and ostracized.
    • Reintegrative Shaming: Short-term targeted shaming followed by forgiveness, repentance, and reintegration into the community.

    Incapacitation Effect

    • Keeping offenders in prison reduces the risk of recidivism (re-offending).

    Trait Theory: Biological and Psychological Perspectives

    • Trait Theory: Criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits.
    • While biological and psychological perspectives overlap, each offers unique insights.

    Sociobiological Theory

    • Sociobiological Theory: Proposed by Edmund Wilson, suggesting that biological and genetic conditions influence how social behaviors are learned and perceived. It explains why some individuals commit crimes while others do not.

    Contemporary Trait Theory

    • Every offender is physically and mentally unique.
    • Some traits are present at birth or develop shortly after, impacting social functioning and behavioral choices.

    Biological Trait Theories

    • Biological trait theories concentrate on biological conditions that control behavior.

    Chemical and Mineral Influences

    • Adequate levels of specific minerals and chemicals are vital for normal brain function.
    • Nutritional deficiencies can lead to depression, mania, cognitive problems, memory loss, and abnormal sexual behavior.

    Neurophysiology

    • Neurophysiology involves the study of brain activity. Neurological or physical abnormalities acquired early in life or through brain injury can influence lifelong behavior, including criminal tendencies.

    Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) and Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)

    • FASD: Characterized by physical and behavioral traits in infants and children associated with alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Diagnosis guidelines are not firmly established.
    • The Link Between FASD and Crime Involvement: Remains a subject of ongoing research.
    • ABI: Researchers are gaining a greater understanding of brain injuries and their potential link to behavioral issues.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Neurotransmitters: Chemical compounds that influence brain function.
    • Abnormal levels of specific neurotransmitters are linked to aggression.

    Arousal Theory

    • Brain function varies in response to environmental stimuli.

    Parental Deviance

    • Researchers are examining potential connections between parental and children's delinquent behavior.

    Adoption Studies

    • Some studies suggest a relationship between biological parents' behavior and their children even in the absence of contact.

    Evolution of Gender and Crime

    • Males have a biological advantage in mating, leading to higher rates of aggression.
    • Differences in mating patterns result in more aggressive males producing more offspring, perpetuating these behaviors.
    • Gender disparities in crime rates may stem from inherent behaviors developed over time due to socialization.

    Criticisms of Biological Theories

    • Biological theories have been criticized for being racist and dangerous in their implications.

    Psychodynamics of Criminal Behavior

    • Criminal offenders exhibit aggressive and frustrated behaviors influenced by childhood experiences.

    Aichorn's Perspective

    • Aichorn believed that societal stress alone is insufficient to cause criminality.

    Latent Delinquency

    • This concept suggests a psychological predisposition to commit antisocial acts, stemming from an id-dominated personality.

    Behavior Theory

    • Human behaviors are shaped through learning experiences.
    • Skinner's Operant Conditioning: Focuses on positive and negative reinforcement.
    • Behavioral Modelling: Learned behavior through observing others..

    Social Learning Theory

    • Social learning theory emphasizes four factors that can contribute to aggressive or violent behavior:
      • An event that heightens arousal.
      • Aggressive skills.
      • Expected outcomes.
      • Consistency of behavior with values.

    Cognitive Theory

    • Cognitive theory focuses on mental processes, including how people perceive and mentally represent their world.

    Information-Processing Theory

    • Information-processing theory explores how individuals process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems.

    Personality

    • Personality: Refers to relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions that distinguish one person from another.

    Nature vs Nurture Theory of Intelligence

    • Nature Theory: Intelligence is primarily determined genetically, with ancestry influencing IQ. Low intelligence is linked to criminality.
    • Nurture Theory: Intelligence is not inherited, but rather influenced by environmental factors.

    Schizophrenia

    • Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and inappropriate responses.
    • Conventional View: There appears to be no strong association between mental disorders and violence.

    Psychological Trait Theorist Counter-Arguments

    • All behavior originates from the individual and the interplay of biological and psychological factors.

    Prevention Programs

    • Primary Prevention Programs: Programs like substance abuse clinics and mental health associations address issues before they escalate into crime.
    • Secondary Prevention Programs: Such as psychological counseling for youths and adults, occur after a law violation.

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    Criminology Midterm Review PDF

    Description

    Explore the fascinating field of criminology, which examines the nature, extent, causes, and controls of criminal behavior. The quiz covers classical theories, biological determinism, biosocial perspectives, and sociological factors that influence crime. Test your knowledge on key concepts and influential figures in criminology.

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