CPU Structure and Function

Processor Structure and Function

• The control unit (CU) sends control signals to other CPU parts, like memory read/write signals.
• The CU executes programs via the fetch-decode-execute cycle
• The CU contains the clock which coordinates CPU activity and the decoder
• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs calculations (add, multiply, divide, subtract) and logical operations (>, <, =).

Registers

• The program counter (PC) stores the memory address of the next instruction to be executed.
• The memory address register (MAR) holds the address of data being fetched from or sent to memory.
• The memory data register (MDR) stores the data fetched from or being stored in memory.
• The current instruction register (CIR) stores the most recently fetched instruction, awaiting decoding and execution.
• The accumulator (ACC) holds the results of ALU calculations and operations.

Buses

• The address bus provides memory addresses to system memory or I/O devices.
• The data bus transfers data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
• The control bus provides control signals for memory or I/O read/write operations.

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: Fetch Stage

• PC copies the address of the next instruction into the MAR.
• CU loads the MAR address onto the address bus.
• CU triggers a read signal via the control bus, prompting RAM to put the requested instruction on the data bus.
• The instruction on the data bus is loaded into the MDR.
• The MDR copies the instruction into the CIR.
• The PC is incremented by one to point to the subsequent instruction, completing the fetch stage.

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: Decode Stage

• The contents of the CIR are sent to the CU.
• CU decodes the instruction.

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: Execute Stage

• The CPU carries out the instruction in the CIR.
• Registers can change during execution based on the instruction.
• For LDA/STA instructions, the address in the CIR is loaded into the MAR.
• In STA (store), data from the accumulator goes to memory.
• In LDA (load), data is loaded from memory into the accumulator.
• For calculation instructions (ADD/SUB), MDR and accumulator contents are sent to the ALU, and the result returns to the accumulator.

Factors Affecting CPU Performance: Clock Speed

• The clock sends pulses at fixed intervals to control the speed of the fetch-decode-execute cycle in the CU.
• A higher clock speed allows the CPU to complete more instructions per second.

Factors Affecting CPU Performance: Overclocking & Cache

• Overclocking changes the clock speed, potentially increasing performance but generating more heat and increasing the risk of damage.
• Cache is a small, fast memory within the CPU that stores frequently used, recently used, or soon-to-be-used instructions or data.
• Accessing data from cache is faster for the CPU than accessing it from RAM.

Factors that impact CPU Performance: Number of Cores

• A core is a complete processing unit (CU, ALU, registers, etc.).
• Each core can independently execute the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
• Multiple cores enable simultaneous instruction processing.
• More transistors and a larger physical size contribute to larger power and heat requirements

Factors Affecting CPU Performance: Pipelining

• Pipelining fetches an instruction while decoding the previous one and executing the one before that.
• It's a form of parallel processing.
• A pipeline controller predicts jump instructions to keep the pipeline full.
• Incorrect predictions require flushing the pipeline, which reduces performance.

Processor Architectures: Von Neumann

• Has a single CU and a single ALU.
• Processes instructions sequentially.
• Stores instructions and data together in the same memory unit, using a binary format.

Processor Architectures: Harvard

• Separates memory into two parts: one for data and one for programs.
• Uses different buses to access each memory part.

Processor Architectures: Modern

• Employs parallel processing.
• Pipelining, array processing (SIMD - single instruction, multiple data), and multicore processing (MIMD - multiple instruction, multiple data) are types of parallel processing.
• Array processing uses numerous ALUs to perform one instruction on a large dataset (e.g., graphics cards).
• Multicore processing uses multiple cores within a CPU or multiple CPUs within a system (workstations, supercomputers).

Types of Processors: CISC

• CISC (complex instruction set computing) supports more instructions.

Types of Processors: RISC

• RISC (reduced instruction set computing) supports fewer instructions.
• Fewer transistors and a smaller physical size lead to lower power consumption and less heat generation.
• Instructions typically take a single clock cycle.

GPUs

• GPU (graphics processing unit) is designed for graphics calculations.
• It's an array processor employing SIMD.
• Can be used in modeling physical systems, audio processing, cryptography, cryptocurrency generation, and machine learning.

Multicore and Parallel Systems

• Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of data and can be considered a non-Von Neumann architecture.
• SIMD performs the same operation on multiple data pieces simultaneously (e.g., GPUs).
• MIMD performs different instructions concurrently on different data pieces, achievable through multicore CPUs.
• MIMD happens on a larger scale with workstations and supercomputers, which can have multiple CPUs, each with multiple cores.
• Distributed computing involves connecting multiple computer systems via a network to work on a problem.

Input/Output and Storage: Input Devices

• Input devices enter data into a computer (keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, joystick).

Input/Output and Storage: Output Devices

• Output devices retrieve information from a computer (printer, speakers, monitors, actuators).

Storage Devices: General Considerations

• Storage devices hold data and programs long-term and are non-volatile.
• Considerations include cost per gigabyte, read/write speed, capacity, durability, and reliability.

Storage Devices: Magnetic

• Magnetic storage uses magnetizable material to represent binary sequences (hard disk drives, magnetic tape).
• Has high capacity at a low cost; vulnerable to magnetic fields, x-rays, and physical shock to HDDs.

Storage Devices: Optical

• Optical storage uses lasers (CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays).
• Media is cheap to produce and distribute and is Fairly reliable if not scratched or broken.

Storage Devices: Flash Memory

• Flash memory is non-volatile solid-state memory that can be overwritten (memory sticks, SD cards, SSDs, modern ROM chips).
• Has high read/write speeds, low power consumption, and resistance to sudden movement or shock.

RAM

• RAM (random access memory) is primary memory for temporarily storing programs and data being run by a computer.

ROM

• ROM (read-only memory) is primary memory that can be read from but not written to and is non-volatile.
• Stores the BIOS (basic input/output system)

Virtual / Cloud Storage

• It stores data over the internet instead of on a local device.
• Data is accessible from any location with internet.

Storage Advantages

• Data can be shared easily between people and devices,
• Scalable capacity.
• Backup and security managed externally.

Storage Disadvantages

• Requires a reliable internet connection,
• It can get expensive for large amounts of data,
• Security relies on the service provider.

Operating systems

• An operating system (OS) is the software that manages the computer's hardware and software.

Purposes

• Managing hardware/peripherals, providing a user interface, providing a platform for software, managing system security, managing CPU usage, providing utilities for maintenance, managing memory.

Memory Management

• The memory manager allocates RAM to processes and controls virtual memory.

Interrupts

• If a hardware device or application needs attention, it raises an interrupt with the CPU.
• The relevant interrupt service routine (ISR) is run if the interrupt has higher priority than the current task.
• PC and other registers are copied to the stack. The ISR is loaded by changing the PC to the location in memory of the ISR.
• Previous PC values are restored from memory to the CPU when the ISR completes.

Scheduling

• Schedulers determine how to share processor time among processes.
• Round robin grants each process a fixed time slice.
• First come, first served allows each process to run to completion.
• Shortest job first picks the job with the shortest estimated time.
• Shortest remaining time picks the process estimated to take the least time and switches if a shorter job arrives. Multilevel feedback queues factor in task priority; low-priority tasks get moved up eventually.

Types of Operating Systems

• Multitasking OS allows users to do multiple things at once.
• Multi-user OS allows multiple users to share resources of a powerful machine.
• Distributed OS runs across multiple computers but appears as one system.
• Embedded OS is in hardware and serves a single purpose.
• Real-time OS reacts to input as close to real-time as possible.

Device Drivers & BIOS

• Device drivers tell the OS how to understand and format data to and from external hardware.
• BIOS controls the startup seuqence of the computer and initializes hardware devices.

Virtual Machines

• A virtual machine (VM) simulates a computer in software, can run multiple operating systems, and helps with security; the host OS is unaffected.

Applications

• Application software performs tasks or produces content (word processor, spreadsheet, web browser).

Utilities

• A utility is a small program for system maintenance (disk cleanup, defragmenter, compression, encryption).

Open Source vs Closed Source Software

• Open Source software source code is available, free, amendable.
• Closed Source software source code is proprietary, polished, easier to install, warrantied, customer support available.

Translators

• A translator coverts source code into machine code.
• Types of translators: assembler, interpreter, and compiler.

Assembler

• Converts assembly code into machine code line by line.
• Interpreter converts high level source code into machine code line by line during coding/debbuging.

Compiler

• Compiler converts high-level source code into machine code all at once.

Compilation

• Lexical analysis removes comments/whitespace, turns code into tokens, creates a symbol table to track variables/subroutines.
• Syntax analysis produces an abstract syntax tree, checking valid syntax.
• Code generation converts syntax analysis into object code; optimization can be speed or memory.

Stages of Compilation

• Libraries contain reusable code.
• Linkers incorporate library code into the final program.
• Loaders load an executable file into memory.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

• Is a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying high-quality software

Methodologies

• Waterfall, rapid application development (RAD), spiral model, and agile software development

Waterfall Model

• Divides the process into sequential stages, suits large-scale projects, inflexible, problems discovered late, and unsuited to high-risk projects.

Rapid Application Development

• Allows for prototyping, iterative evaluation and refinement, suits projects where some requirements aren't clear, fast product to market, requires heavy client feedback, and does not scale well.

Spiral Model

• Manages risk, requires risk identification, flexible, experts are expensive and complex.

Agile Methods

• Manages changes in requirement.

Extreme programming

• Focuses on high coding quality.

Algorithmic Thinking

• Algorithmic thinking is key to solving any problem, an algorithm is a set of instructions to solve a problem which can be represented as a computer program or recipe for your favorite meal.

Types of Programming Languages

• Paradigms group the language.
• Low level and high level division.
• Imperative and declarative

Machine Code

• Assembly Language is low-level language.

Low Level Language

• Close control of the CPU and efficient/optimized code

High Level Program

• Closer to how we express ourselves. Mixed English and math.

Imperative Programming

• Computer is told what to do step-by-step in Procedural and Object Oriented.

Declarative Logic

• A Qualities of the solution. and has Logic vs functional languages

Procedural Language

• Instructions given in sequence and program broken into key block. such as C and Pascal.

Assembly Language

• is a big topic
• Machine uses binary.

Assemby

• Assembly uses pneumonics that easy for humans each Assembly represents machine code.
• Over here we have the little man computer instruction set that you need to know for your test.

Simple addition Program in Assembly

• Enter a number and store in the accumulator.
• Store Contents of accumulator in Memory.

More complicated Comparison Program in Assembly

• Compare Two number and find which output wins

Modes of Addressing Memory: Immediate

• Data to be used is hardcoded into the instruction.

Modes of Addressing Memory: Direct

• Operand contains the memory address, telling CPU directly where to look.

Modes of Addressing Memory: Indexed

• Final address for the data determined by adding an offset to a base address.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

• OOP organises programs around objects, which have unique attributes and behavior

Main ideas

• Group data/attributes and functions/methods into classes to enccapsulate , reuse code/inheritance, and make it much easier to maintain .

Key object attributes of Object Oriented Programming.

• Object rely on class structure (3).
• Class name, Attributes, and methods.

Object Oriented Languages (Pseudo code examples).

• Class name (for example dwelling). Public values (new key) and Private (security)

Other key OO languages

• Abstraction hide code, implement changes.
• Encapsulation provides better security
• Inheritance is the concept when defining a class.

Object ability in coding

• Use same code to process object according to their type

Compression.

• Involves transmitting files storing number of files, we need to compress data to make storage to a smaller size.

2 main comression types

• Lossy comprestion and lossless compression.

Lossy

• Removes data and irreversible
• Lossless compression does not remove data and always reverisble.

Dictionary Coding.

• Makes use of reduant and repeater data on a text set

Encryption

• Is to only legitimate and authorized use can read.

Symmetric ENcryption

• Same key use to Encrypt and DYcrpty messages.

Asymmetric ENcryption Requires

• Requires 2 diffrent Key to to use to encrypt and decrypt.

As with ENcription

• Having Public Keys and Private Keys helps with security

Hashing

• is generating a value from a string of text using a mathematical function.

Uses of Hashing.

• Faster Searching. And Verify intergity of Files.

Database Fun.

• Is structured collection of data
• Flat type Database is stored in one large table easy to set up.

Relating database tables

• Is ware the database in two tables that link thogehter using Primary and forgien keys.

Key Vocab

• Primary keys, and forgien keys and scodry key

Database Joins

• Foreign keys in one table link to a corresponding primary key in another, establishing relationships.
• Joining tables requires specifying the matching fields using the ON clause.
• Field names in the ON clause do not need to be identical, but the data they contain should correspond.
• Example SQL syntax: SELECT table1.field1, table2.field2 FROM table1 JOIN table2 ON table1.field_name = table2.field_name.

Transaction Processing

• A transaction is a change to the database, maintaining integrity.
• The database management system ensures transactions move the database from one consistent state to another.
• Records may be locked during transactions to prevent interference from other transactions.
• ACID rules (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) protect the integrity of a database during transaction processing.
  • Atomicity: Transactions are completed fully or not at all.
  • Consistency: Changes must not violate the database's integrity constraints.
  • Isolation: Transactions must not interfere with each other.
  • Durability: Completed transactions must persist even in the event of system failure.

Data Integrity

• Data integrity refers to the accuracy and reliability of data.
• Validation and verification techniques help maintain data integrity.
• Referential integrity ensures consistency between tables by enforcing foreign key constraints.
  • Foreign key values must match corresponding primary key values

Record Locking

• Record locking prevents multiple users from accessing and modifying the same data simultaneously.
• Tables are locked until a transaction is completed.
• If a transaction fails, the record is unlocked.

Redundancy

• Redundancy involves building multiple clone databases in geographically remote locations.
• This protects against catastrophic system failure, ensuring data availability for critical organizations.

Networks

• Networks are interconnected computer devices used for communication and data sharing.
• Networks provide access to a central data store for all users, as well as resource sharing like printers and storage.
• Centralized data backup becomes easier.
• Network efficiency depends on the network manager.
• Network performance degrades with increased traffic.
• Security concerns are potential drawbacks if not administered properly.

Network Hardware

• NIC (Network Inteface Card): Enables a computer device to connect to a network.
• Switch: Connects devices within a Local Area Network (LAN).
• WAP (Wireless Access Point): Connects wireless devices to a LAN.
• Router: Connects different types of networks.

Transmission Media

• Copper Cables: Transmit electrical signals, used for Ethernet connections.
• Fiber Optic Cables: Utilize thin strands of glass or plastic to transmit data as pulses of light.
• Radio Waves: Transmit data wirelessly using the EM spectrum.

Network Classification by Extent

• LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area like a building or small group of buildings.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Span large geographic area (cities, countries, continents).
• PAN (Personal Area Network): Connects personal devices like phones and tables, typically using Bluetooth.

Network Topologies

• Bus Topology: Attaches nodes along a common backbone; failure of the backbone leads to network failure.
• Ring Topology: Nodes are attached in a circular fashion; data frames are sent in one direction.
• Star Topology: Each node connects to a central switch or hub; cable failures do not affect the whole network.
• Mesh Topology: All nodes are connected to every other node; offers high fault tolerance but is costly to implement in wired setups.

Network Protocols

• Define rules for data transmission between devices on a network.

Common Network Protocols

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures error-free transmission.
• IP (Internet Protocol): Addresses and transfers packets across the internet.
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for accessing and transmitting web documents.
• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): Secure, encrypted form of HTTP.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending and managing emails.
• POP (Post Office Protocol): Used for retrieving and managing emails.
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Advanced protocol for retrieving emails.

Network Protocols and Layering

• Protocols are layered to manage the complexity of network communication.
• TCP/IP model includes these layers:
  • Application Layer: handles production, communication, and reception of data
  • Transport Layer: establishes connections between networks, ensuring reliable data flow
  • Internet Layer: links between networks, creating interoperability between systems
  • Network/Link Layer: passes data onto the physical network

Domain Name System (DNS)

• DNS matches domain names (e.g., example.com) to IP addresses through domain name servers.
• URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) uses domain names instead of IP addresses as they are easier to remember than IP addresses.

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

• Circuit Switching: Establishes a physical connection between two communicating entities.
• Packet Switching: Divides messages into packets and sends them across the network via the most efficient route.

Network Security

• Username/password authentication: common and easily circumvented (social engineering, brute force)
• 2FA (two-factor authentication): Sends a code to a phone or requires a security device
• Biometric Identification (fingerprint scanners / facial recognition)
• Firewalls: Monitor and filter incoming and outgoing data
  • Uses IP address filtering, packet filtering, and port blocking
• Encryption: Data should always be encrypted before transmission
• Proxies: Placed between a network and a remote resource, masking user's computer
• VPN (Virtual Private Network): Uses encryption to extend a private network across a public network
  • Circumvents geo-restrictions and censorship as well as protecting anonymity

Network Architectures

• Client-Server: Clients request resources from a central server.
  • Advantages: Clients need not be powerful, data accessible from anywhere, easier maintenance and backup
  • Disadvantages: Expensive servers, requires specialist staff, server failure brings down the whole network
• Peer-to-Peer: All computers have equal status, acting as both client and server.
  • Advantages: Cheap to set up, Robust, no single peer can bring down the network
  • Disadvantages: If a peer goes offline, resources stored on the device can't be accessed, no central software update, no central backup

Web Technologies

• Three components:
  • HTML: Content and Structure
  • CSS: Presentation and Format
  • JavaScript: Interactivity
• HTML: additional HTML may be explained within questions
• CSS: Styling and formatting
• JavaScript: used for outputting information on the screen

Search Engines

• Spiders/Crawlers/Bots build indexes of websites.
• Pages are ranked by links from external sites to assess relevance, ranking depends on the quality of links.

Page Rank Algorithm

• The damping factor (D) can be set between 0 and 1 to reduce potential ranking.
  • The damping factor reduces the ranking and also represents the probability that the user will continue.

Client-Side Scripting

• Code runs locally on the user's computer within a web browser.
• Reduces server load and enables client-side data validation.
• Example: Javascript
• Code is visible to users.

Server-Side Scripting

• Code runs on the website's server.
• Has fewer security concerns than client-side scripting.
• Handles SQL and sensitive data processing, protecting it from client-side manipulation.
• Example: PHP

Primitive Data Types

• Character
• String
• Boolean
• Integer
• Real

Binary Representation of Positive Integers

• Computers store and process data using binary numbers.
• Each digit place is multiplied by two moving right to left.
• Converting binary to denary involves adding the values of the place values where there is a one.
• Largest number w/8 bits = 255
• To go from denary to binary, use repeated substraction.

Sign and Magnitude (Binary)

• Most significant bit (MSB) determines the sign: 0 for positive, 1 for negative.
• Has issues like representing 0 in two ways and complicating arithmetic operations.

Two's Complement

• MSB represents a negative value (-128 for an 8-bit number) as opposed to sign and magnitude.
• More effective than sign and magnitude.
• Column headings for 8-bit become -128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1.

Binary Addition Rules

• 0 + 0 = 0
• 0 + 1 = 1
• 1 + 0 = 1
• 1 + 1 = 0, carry 1
• 1 + 1 + 1 = 1, carry 1

Binary Subtraction Rules

• 0 - 0 = 0
• 1 - 0 = 1
• 1 - 1 = 0
• 0 - 1 = 1, borrow 1 from the next column
• Conversion is necessary to know how to perform binary addition

Denary to Hexadecimal

• Divide by 16
• Keep the remainder
• If the remainder is 10-15, convert to A-F

Hexadecimal to Denary

• Multiply the correct value by 16^2, 16^1, 16^0
• Add them together

Binary to Hexadecimal

• Divide into nibbles of 4
• Insert 1, 2, 4, 8
• Add

Hexadecimal to Binary

• Convert each hexidecimal numeral to denary
• Use the same 'nibbles' process above to convert to binary

Floating Point Representation In Binary

Mantissa and exponent are used

• Significant digits
• power of 2
• the questions will specify bit size of the mentissa and exponent

Negative Floating Point Example

• Convert to sign and magnitude by inverting the bits and + 1
• The exponent remains 3
• To calculate - move the binary point to the right 3 bits
• Remember if given a binary that begins with a 1- its negative

Normalization of Floating Point Numbers

• Floating point improves accuracy, mantissa shouldn't waste bits with wasted digits at the start
• Floating moves binary around

Floating Point Rules

• • #'s always in 2's complement
• if the mantissa / exponent begin w/ 0 -its positive 1 = negative 2's complement - + mantissa
• to perform, shift/ add decimal place to the right and exponent grows larger.

Manipulating Bitwise and Masks

• Binary shift- left = # * 2 - shifting left # is multiplied Binary right- # gets divided by 2- results in under/overflow (AND/OR/EXOR)-
• ALU- performs bitwise operations

• and or Exor

Masking- important

• Allows users to manipulate each bit within an operand - by 1 to allow bis through/or block
• mask can be used w/ zero = excludes operand _ exor_
• with a on e checks that there are 2 bits - if same re turn 0 and vise versa

Character Sets

• ASCII =
• represent text value, ASCII
• digits + symbol = represented w/ agreed binary patters
• • originally based w/ 8-bit binary pattern
• more modern unicode: org 16 - updated to 16 to remove by using series of code pages w/ each page rep language
• original ASCII rep includes part of original set w/ same # values

Data Structures

Arrays

• fixed size, static
• contains same data type stored in contagious memory
• 1D - single set of data/single row, easy to visualize
• 2D - set of data that shows structure in rows/columns
• 3D - collection of 2D arrays; more complex, tables on top of each other
• a Record is accessed through an attribute
• unordered structure, indexes/programs the data ordered through a specific attribute
• ability to access= easier to use
• defining attributes before use = complex to initialize
• a List is ordered and accessed through an index
• index indicates position= no predefined # of elements
• not needing to define attributes= simplifies to initialize
• straight forward index= program
• a Tuple is an immutable list , data not modified
• linked list consists of linked data and links to sort data via various factors
• data is stored and pointers link data in the correct order
• start pointer= identifies #1
• null = identify last
• free = the available free location
• Ques
• add to list
• remove to start
• 1st IN 1st OUT
• implemented by other lists
• either way 2 points
• static / Dynamic
• operations carry ques / function / code depending
• various uses= scheduling.
• Linear / Circle
• linear moves when removed
• data processing and circle- required processing
• the operation needs 2-3 bits

STACKS:

• data ADDED to the top , data REMOVED to top
• last in first out
• PUSH command to insert
• Pop to remove
• top of stack / used to improve orders/items

Data Trees

• Data that doesn't fit into a list
• Nodes - start the structure / known as root node
• parents + / - child- branch joins nodes
• binary
• specific / only allowed up to 2 . child
• left pointer | data right pointer
• alpha
• left subtree contains numbers < root and vice versa

Traverse structures

• pre-order
• inorder
• postOrder

Graphs

• data connections between them= vertices connect w/ data
• undirected
• edges - may be assigned
• directional = connected data
• 2 types of graph = breath/ data

Traverse graphs:

• breath first = visit all adjoining
• Depth first = travels down one route as far as possible before reversing and travel to next as far down the next

HASH Tables

• structure where maps keys= values hash function is needed to make the index ( Hash code / Array) collision- the best way to generate unique index algorithm

Boolean Algebra

• truth tables / notation

Half Adder

• with output and input logic circuit = add in binary -recognize table & gates

Flip Flops

• can store / 2 are combined w/ - d type flip flops

D- type circuits

• clocks- two inputs w/ data delays by 1 + output association /communication and negation
• the laws apply

Carom maps

• useful to keep track of expressions
• maps enable pattern reg / modified as truth table

Legislation

• computer misuse 1990= made illegal to conduct crimes towards the computer
• data protect protect
• 1998, strengthened - control the storage date about ppl GDPR - responsibility for accuracy data
• used by - fair. valid / stated. adequate/ relevant - no longer, transferred only to states = security

Copyright, Design, and Act

• to copy/distribute w/o permission = against the act

Communal

• give licensing when content produce to have license + permission

Regulate investigator Act

• to check communication via internets or bodies/ public places

Moral Ethical

• play important part + changing the environment + skill-set

Automate Decision Making:

• machine is IMPOSSIBLE = use by a human/ depend- accuracy and data

Artificial Intel:

• program from experience

Environment Issues:

• technology stop/ thrown away - E waste pollution / communication waste

Censorship - monitor + control

Lay out color paradigm

• layout = read from RIGHT to left Color = culture - associations change charcter settings = additional letter

Understand the roles of the control unit (CU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and various registers (PC, MAR, MDR, CIR, ACC) within a CPU. Learn how these components facilitate program execution through the fetch-decode-execute cycle.