Collapse, War, and Reconstruction in Rwanda

Tens of thousands of Rwandese refugees fled to neighbouring countries like Burundi, Uganda and Tanzania during the 1960s after anti-Tutsi pogroms.

Despite being scattered across different countries, Rwandese refugees and their descendants continued to push for the right to return to Rwanda, advocating for their right to live in their homeland.

The term 'inyangarwanda' was used by the Kayibanda regime to label Rwandese refugees as enemies of the state, highlighting the government's rejection of their return.

The Habyarimana regime, while not granting permanent residency, allowed Rwandese refugees to visit their relatives on a temporary basis, a limited concession to their desire to return.

The persistent desire of refugees to return and the government's resistance to their permanent return created an irresolvable conflict, setting the stage for potential future conflict.

The Rwandan government's reluctance to grant citizenship rights and allow permanent return to refugees contributed to their feelings of alienation and fueled tensions.

The failure to resolve the conflict over the return of Rwandese refugees created a breeding ground for potential armed conflict, as both sides held firm to their positions.

The Rwandan refugee crisis highlights the complex relationship between refugees and their home countries, often characterized by competing demands, unresolved grievances, and the potential for violence.

The practice of favoring individuals from a specific region, particularly Gitarama, for positions within the ruling party.

The expulsion of members within a political party who disagree with the leadership, often due to concerns about ethnic hatred or mistreatment of specific groups.

The act of prioritizing recruitment within a political party based on geographical origin, leading to an imbalance in representation.

The situation where the majority of leaders in a country come from a single region, leading to a perception of unfairness and disparity.

The perception of a government’s actions as manipulative or corrupt, often leading to feelings of distrust and resentment among the population.

The systematic exclusion of individuals based on their origin, leading to resentment and polarization within a society.

A political system based on the principle of equal representation for different ethnic groups, aiming to ensure fairness and inclusivity.

The situation where the power shifts from one group to another, often due to a coup or revolution, leading to a new political order.

A policy implemented by Rwandan regimes, both before and after the genocide, to promote equity by using quotas based on ethnicity and region for access to education, employment, and political positions.

A key practice that facilitated the implementation of ethnic quotas in Rwanda, where every citizen was classified by ethnicity on official records and ID documents from birth.

The use of quotas based on ethnicity and region to promote fairness in access to opportunities, despite being rooted in the principle of equity, perpetuated discrimination and exclusion of certain ethnic groups.

A long-standing practice in Rwanda to prioritize Hutu people in government positions, leaving very few opportunities for Tutsis, despite claims of representation based on population statistics.

The official statistics used to justify ethnic quotas in Rwanda were unreliable, with population census results never published and fixed figures that did not reflect reality.

The implementation of ethnic quotas in Rwanda, even with statistics of questionable validity, was unevenly enforced, with quotas not being consistently adhered to across different sectors of society.

The extension of ethnic discrimination from official to private sectors and even religious institutions in Rwanda, demonstrating the pervasive nature of the practice.

The prohibition of inter-ethnic marriages for members of the Rwandan military, illustrating the deep-rooted nature of ethnic divisions and their impact on personal lives.

The MRND (Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement), established in 1973, became the single ruling party in Rwanda. It replaced PARMEHUTU, the previous ruling party.

Habyarimana's regime, despite perpetuating ethnic and regional divisions, justified single-party rule by claiming Rwanda's cultural homogeneity. This argument was based on shared culture and language.

The MRND's creation placed Rwanda under the joint control of the party and the military, with Habyarimana holding many crucial positions. He was the president, party founder, prime minister, and others.

Habyarimana's dominance over key positions in the MRND and the government during his early years led to a highly centralized authority.

The National Council for Development, an organ of the MRND, replaced the National Assembly in 1981. Members of the council were chosen from lists drawn by the MRND Central Committee.

Habyarimana's regime actively perpetuated ethnic and regional divisions while claiming to foster unity. This led to resentment and opposition from different groups within Rwanda.

The MRND's one-party rule and Habyarimana's concentration of power created a system where political opposition was stifled. This contributed to growing dissent and eventual violence.

The MRND's policies and practices, including ethnic divisions and exclusion, led to the rise of opposition groups and increased support for the RPF, a Tutsi-led rebel group. This eventually led to the Rwandan Civil War.

The decline in global interest in African affairs, particularly during the post-Cold War era, led to a reduction in foreign involvement and attention to internal conflicts. This lack of focus created a dangerous window for repressive governments to act with impunity.

When major powers are less interested in a region, repressive regimes can commit crimes against their citizens without much international scrutiny or intervention.

The lack of international attention emboldened internal opponents to resort to violence, believing it was the only way to stop oppression. This pattern was evident in Rwanda, where a violent reaction against the Habyarimana regime escalated into genocide.

France, despite publicly advocating for democratization, maintained a strong alliance with Rwanda's Habyarimana regime. This support stemmed from close personal and political connections between French and Rwandan leaders.

The lack of strong institutional mechanisms within France, particularly within the parliament, allowed for continued support of the Habyarimana regime despite its flaws.

The Museveni government in Uganda facilitated, through actions or inaction, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) as it prepared for war against the Habyarimana government. This support, however, was not universally acknowledged.

The international community's lack of attention to the brewing crisis in Rwanda allowed the RPF to operate relatively freely, escalating the potential for conflict.

Despite the decline in global interest in Africa, some international actors, like France and Zaïre, continued to support the Habyarimana regime. This support was based on personal relationships rather than a clear assessment of the situation.

The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) government aimed to attract exiled political figures back to Rwanda, believing they were less of a threat at home than abroad.

Similar to Uganda's NRM government, the RPF sought to neutralize potential threats by reintegrating former government officials and military officers into Rwandan society.

The RPF integrated elements of the defeated Rwandan army into the RPA, transforming it into the national army (RDF).

Even those accused of genocide crimes were tried. If no evidence was found, they were reintegrated into the RDF.

Unlike previous regimes, the RPF government encouraged political exiles to return to Rwanda, viewing them as less dangerous at home.

The RPF government's efforts to reintegrate former exiles and soldiers aimed to reduce potential future instability.

The RPF's strategy for reintegration was inspired by the National Resistance Movement (NRM) in Uganda, which also sought to attract exiled dissidents.

The RPF's reintegration strategy served to minimize potential threats from former exiles and soldiers.