Cognitive Psychology - Thinking and Reasoning
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Questions and Answers

What is the key feature of propositional logic regarding truth values?

  • It allows for varying degrees of truth.
  • It recognizes statements as either true or false only. (correct)
  • It accepts that some statements may be undecided.
  • It includes statements that can be both true and false.

Which of the following is a valid form of inference in conditional reasoning?

  • Denial of the Antecedent
  • Modus Ponens (correct)
  • Confirmation of the Premise
  • Affirmation of the Consequent

What does Modus Tollens imply if the premises are true?

  • If p then q; therefore, p is true.
  • If p then q; therefore, not q implies not p. (correct)
  • If p then not q; therefore, not p is true.
  • If p then q; therefore, not p is false.

Why is 'Affirmation of the Consequent' considered an invalid argument form?

<p>The conclusion does not necessarily follow from true premises. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens in the Denial of the Antecedent argument form?

<p>If the antecedent is false, the consequent must also be false. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which implication does a truth table validate?

<p>The validity of propositional logic arguments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes conditional reasoning from everyday reasoning?

<p>It strictly adheres to true or false conclusions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect might the differences between logical and natural reasoning have on people?

<p>It may lead to more frequent errors in reasoning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does validity in an argument refer to?

<p>The logical structure of the argument (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following arguments is valid but not true?

<p>All dogs have tails; the president of the US is a dog; therefore, the president of the US has a tail. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What error was identified in reasoning regarding A and B in the content?

<p>Assuming all B are A from the premise that all A are B. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which logical operator is not part of propositional reasoning?

<p>Therefore (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary tendency of belief bias in human reasoning?

<p>To be seduced by the believability of conclusions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of participants accepted a valid but unbelievable conclusion based on the data from Evans, Barston & Pollard?

<p>55% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates an invalid argument despite its believable content?

<p>No addictive things are inexpensive; some cigarettes are inexpensive; therefore, some addictive things are not cigarettes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of logical arguments, what distinguishes truth from validity?

<p>Truth relates to the premises, while validity relates to the argument form. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of deductive reasoning?

<p>It is always truth preserving. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of task is commonly used when assessing human performance?

<p>Generation tasks (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reasoning increases semantic information?

<p>Inductive reasoning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What inference is drawn almost universally according to reasoning performance studies?

<p>Modus ponens (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a categorical syllogism consist of?

<p>Two premises and a conclusion with quantitative terms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Abstract Rule Theory suggest about human reasoning?

<p>Rational thinking is guided by specialized rules of logic. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is reasoning considered a separate area from decision-making and problem-solving?

<p>Because they focus on different aspects of human cognition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of context in reasoning?

<p>It can influence the interpretation and conclusions made. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is modus tollens considered more challenging than modus ponens?

<p>It requires a sequence of rules that may lead to error. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Johnson-Laird and Bryne argue regarding deductive reasoning?

<p>It is essential for formulating arguments and plans. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of errors in reasoning as suggested by Abstract Rule Theories?

<p>Misinterpretation of everyday language (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does inductive reasoning typically conclude?

<p>By making conclusions that are not necessarily true. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an invalid inference?

<p>If it is sunny, then the children will play outside. The children are playing outside. Therefore, it is sunny. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors must theories of reasoning account for?

<p>Content effects, competence, and errors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about valid and invalid inferences is correct?

<p>Invalid inferences do not follow logically from their premises. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage of Braine's Abstract Rule Theory?

<p>Transforming premises into mental representations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which erroneous conclusion exemplifies the denial of the antecedent?

<p>If it snows, then school is canceled. School is not canceled. Therefore, it is not snowing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception when applying modus ponens in conditional reasoning?

<p>If the children are playing outside, then it must be sunny. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the phrase 'denial of the antecedent' imply in logical reasoning?

<p>If it is not sunny, it must mean the children will not play outside. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of the abstract rule theory in reasoning?

<p>It does not account for belief bias in reasoning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does context and content affect in logical reasoning?

<p>The process of making inferences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents an example of modus ponens?

<p>If it rains, the ground gets wet; It rains; Therefore, the ground gets wet. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of propositional reasoning fail to adequately address?

<p>The variety of reasoning styles among individuals. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential alternative explanation to propositional reasoning?

<p>Pragmatic reasoning schemas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which reasoning fallacy is demonstrated when concluding that it must be sunny if the children are outside?

<p>Affirmation of the consequent. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Conditional Reasoning

A type of reasoning that deals with 'if...then' statements, often seen in logic.

Modus Ponens

A valid inference in conditional reasoning where, given 'if p then q' and 'p' is true, we can conclude 'q' is also true.

Modus Tollens

A valid inference in conditional reasoning where, given 'if p then q' and 'q' is false, we can conclude 'p' is also false.

Affirmation of the Consequent

An invalid inference in conditional reasoning where, given 'if p then q' and 'q' is true, we cannot conclude 'p' is true.

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Denial of the Antecedent

An invalid inference in conditional reasoning where, given 'if p then q' and 'p' is false, we cannot conclude 'q' is false.

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Truth-Preserving Argument

An argument is truth-preserving if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true.

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Validity

The structure or form of an argument, regardless of the truth of its premises.

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Belief Bias

When a conclusion is judged based on how believable it is rather than on its logical validity.

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Valid and True Argument

An argument form where the premises are true and the conclusion is also true.

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Valid but Untrue Argument

An argument form where the premises are true but the conclusion is false.

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Invalid but True Argument

An argument form where the premises are false but the conclusion is true.

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Invalid and Untrue Argument

An argument form where the premises are false and the conclusion is also false.

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Propositional Reasoning

A formal system using symbols to represent sentences and logical operators to reach conclusions.

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Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning where conclusions are necessarily true, and does not involve adding any knowledge outside of presented information.

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Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning that goes from specific observations to general conclusions, which might not be true.

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Categorical Syllogism

A type of deductive reasoning that uses two premises and a conclusion, and includes quantity terms like 'all', 'some', or 'none'.

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Categorical Proposition

A statement that describes a relationship between categories, often in the form of 'All A are B', 'Some A are B', or 'No A are B'.

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Valid Inference

A conclusion that logically follows from the premises, meaning the conclusion is guaranteed to be true if the premises are true.

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Invalid Inference

A conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises, even if the premises are true.

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Context in Reasoning

The influence of background knowledge, experience, and context on our reasoning process, which can lead to biases and errors.

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Abstract Rule Theory

A theory that proposes that people's ability to reason logically depends on underlying mental rules or schemas.

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Comprehension Component

A component of Abstract Rule Theory, which suggests that before reasoning, premises must be converted into a mental representation that can be manipulated.

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Incompatibility Rule

A part of Abstract Rule Theory, which focuses on detecting and eliminating inconsistencies or contradictions in reasoning.

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Resource Limitation

The observation that people tend to make more errors when reasoning with complex logical rules, particularly when the derivation chain involves multiple steps.

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Study Notes

Cognitive Psychology - Thinking and Reasoning

  • Reasoning is a complex process, with a history spanning at least 2,000 years, extending back to Aristotle. In psychology, this aspect of thinking has developed more recently, particularly after the "cognitive revolution."
  • Psychologists consider reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving distinct areas, although interrelated.
  • Deductive reasoning is central to tasks like planning, hypothesis evaluation, interpreting instructions, and negotiating arguments.
  • Reasoning involves making inferences, and a distinction exists between inductive and deductive reasoning.
  • Inductive reasoning involves gathering information, forming inferences, and making conclusions that likely, but not necessarily, represent truth. Burglaries provide an example of inductive reasoning.
  • Deductive reasoning involves using premises that logically lead to a conclusion where the conclusion is necessarily true, given the premises. Truth-preserving arguments are important aspects of deductive reasoning.
  • Categorical syllogisms are examples of deductive reasoning involving premises and conclusions using terms like "all, some, none" to draw inferences. All artists are beekeepers. All beekeepers are chemists. Therefore, all artists are chemists.
  • Validity in deductive reasoning refers to the structure of the argument. A conclusion might be true but invalid, or untrue but valid.
  • Belief bias in reasoning refers to the tendency for individuals to accept conclusions based on their believability rather than the validity of reasoning.
  • Propositional reasoning uses symbolic representations of statements and logical operators (e.g., "and," "or," "if...then") to draw conclusions.
  • Important aspects of conditional reasoning include: modus ponens (If P, then Q. P therefore Q) and modus tollens (If P, then Q. Not Q, therefore not P).
  • Conditional reasoning involves reasoning about "if...then" statements.
  • Inferences about conditional statements can be valid or invalid.
  • Human reasoning may not always align with logical principles, and errors like belief bias and affirming the consequent can occur.
  • Reasoning performance studies often reveal consistent patterns; and these can involve comprehension or resource limitations.
  • Theories attempt to account for the patterns of reasoning observed empirically and are focused on the competence of individuals.

Reasoning Performance

  • Reasoning performance varies with the type of inference (e.g., modus ponens vs. modus tollens).
  • Human reasoning is susceptible to errors (e.g., belief bias).
  • Theories attempt to account for the observed patterns of reasoning performance, examining competence, errors, and limitations (like resource or time constraints).

Theories of Reasoning

  • Abstract rule theories - mental logic systems can successfully predict reasoning based on logic (as a formal system for reasoning). Rules of mental logic (or specialist processes for logical thinking) can explain people's reasoning.
  • Reasoning comprehension and application (how people interpret and process premises, and how they apply rules of inference).
  • Factors like content, language, and social context affect the quality and accuracy of reasoning.

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Description

Explore the intricate world of reasoning in cognitive psychology, from its historical roots in Aristotle to modern applications. This quiz delves into the distinctions between inductive and deductive reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving techniques. Test your knowledge and understanding of how reasoning shapes our thinking processes.

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