141 Questions
Which system of thinking is quick, automatic, and relies on associations?
System 1
What is the immediate judgment of most people when asked how much the ball costs?
10 cents
Why is the judgment that the ball costs 10 cents incorrect?
The bat would have to be $1
What is the correct cost of the ball according to the text?
5 cents
What does the text say about expert performance in any field?
It is often driven by intuition derived from extensive experience
What are the weaknesses of System 1 thinking according to the text?
It depends on the quality and amount of experience an individual possesses
What are the strengths of System 2 reasoning according to the text?
It is highly useful in novel situations and problems
What is the primary function of System 2 according to the text?
To monitor the products of the automatic process
What is the similarity between critical thinking and System 2 according to the text?
The words 'effortful, controlled, deliberate, purposeful, and conscious' are frequently used to describe both
What do researchers believe about Systems 1 and 2 according to the text?
They run in parallel and work together, capitalizing on each other's strengths and compensating for their weaknesses
What was the dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s?
People made judgments by calculating probability and utility
What did researchers in the 1950’s notice about the rational choice theory?
It failed to predict actual behavior
What did the alternative theory propose in the early 1970s?
People use heuristics to make judgments
What does the heuristic theory propose?
Many judgments are based on intuition or rules of thumb
What are the two cognitive systems proposed by the most recent versions of heuristic theory?
Intuition and reasoning
What is System 1 in the two-process theories?
A quick, automatic, implicit process
What is System 2 in the two-process theories?
An effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled process
What do many researchers now use to arrive at solutions?
Associational strengths
What does the example in the text demonstrate?
The different judgments that can result from System 1 and System 2 processes
What is the main difference between System 1 and System 2 processes?
System 1 is intuitive, while System 2 is based on reasoning
What did researchers in the 1950’s notice about the rational choice theory?
It failed to predict actual behavior.
What is System 1 in the two-process theories?
A quick, automatic, and implicit process.
What is System 2 in the two-process theories?
An effortful, conscious, and deliberate process.
What is the primary function of System 2 according to the text?
To make calculations of probability and utility.
What do many researchers now use to arrive at solutions?
Rules of thumb.
What do researchers believe about Systems 1 and 2 according to the text?
They are both used to make judgments.
What is the main difference between System 1 and System 2 processes?
System 1 is quick and automatic, while System 2 is effortful and conscious.
What does the example in the text demonstrate?
The difference between System 1 and System 2 processes.
What was the dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s?
The rational choice theory.
What are the two cognitive systems proposed by the most recent versions of heuristic theory?
System 1 and System 2.
What is the immediate judgment of most people when asked how much the ball costs?
10 cents
What is the correct cost of the ball according to the text?
5 cents
What are the weaknesses of System 1 thinking according to the text?
It depends on the quality and amount of experience an individual possesses
What do researchers believe about Systems 1 and 2 according to the text?
They work together and capitalize on each other's strengths
What is the primary function of System 2 according to the text?
To monitor the products of the automatic process
What does the example in the text demonstrate?
The differences between System 1 and System 2
What is the similarity between critical thinking and System 2 according to the text?
They both require effort and control
What is the main difference between System 1 and System 2 processes?
System 1 is quick and automatic, while System 2 is slow and effortful
What does the text say about expert performance in any field?
It is often driven by intuition derived from extensive experience
Why is the judgment that the ball costs 10 cents incorrect?
Because the ball can't cost 10 cents
What is the primary weakness of System 1 thinking?
It cannot be used effectively in novel situations
What is one of the similarities between critical thinking and System 2?
They are both slow and effortful
What is one of the weaknesses of System 2 reasoning according to the text?
It is slow and effortful
What is one of the functions of the controlled deliberate process (System 2)?
To monitor the products of the automatic process
What is one of the strengths of System 1 thinking according to the text?
It relies on associations
What is one of the weaknesses of expert performance?
It can make errors in judgment when well-learned associations lead them astray
What is one of the functions of System 2 according to the most recent theories?
To monitor the products of the automatic process
What is one of the weaknesses of System 1 thinking?
It relies on associations
What is one of the weaknesses of System 2 reasoning?
It is slow and effortful
What is one of the functions of the controlled deliberate process (System 2) according to the text?
To monitor the products of the automatic process
What was the main reason that researchers in the 1950’s began to question the rational choice theory?
The theory failed to predict actual behavior
Based on the text, what is the primary difference between the rational-choice model and the heuristic theory?
The rational-choice model involves calculating probability and utility, while the heuristic theory involves using intuition or rules of thumb
Which cognitive system is described as quick, automatic, and implicit?
System 1
Based on the text, what is the primary function of System 2?
Effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled reasoning
What do many researchers now use to arrive at solutions?
Associational strengths
Based on the text, what is the recent theory that proposes the use of two cognitive systems to make judgments?
Heuristic theory
What is the primary function of System 1 in the two-process theories?
Quick, automatic, and implicit intuition
Based on the text, what is the primary function of System 2 in the two-process theories?
Effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled reasoning
What is the recent theory that proposes the use of two cognitive systems to make judgments?
Heuristic theory
Based on the text, what do many researchers now use to arrive at solutions?
Associational strengths
Suppose a bat and a ______ cost $1.10 in total. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?
ball
Most people’s immediate judgment is that the ball costs ______ cents.
10
The ball can’t cost ______ cents because then the bat would have to be $1, which would make it only 90 cents more than the ball.
10
The more effortful deliberately controlled reasoning, or System 2, process usually produces a different, and ______, answer.
correct
When people spend the time and effort to think about the problem, they usually realize the ball must cost ______ cents and the bat must cost $1.05.
5
Hence, in this example, the two systems produce different ______.
judgments
Nor does System 1 always produce an ______ answer, nor one that is poorer than one produced by System 2.
incorrect
Expert performance is not without ______, and studies have shown that even experts make errors in judgment when well-learned associations lead them astray.
fault
The associational processes used in System 1 that make expert performance so quick and powerful are the same processes that are responsible for systematic errors that experts sometimes ______.
make
System 2 reasoning also has its strengths and ______.
weaknesses
According to the dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s, people made judgments by calculating (1) the probability and (2) the utility of competing options.
rational-choice model
The alternative theory proposed that people use ______ to make judgments, as opposed to the rational weighing of relevant factors.
heuristics
The recent theory proposes the use of two cognitive systems to make judgments: System 1 and ______.
System 2
System 1 is a quick, automatic, implicit process that has been proposed to explain ______.
intuition
The text suggests that many judgments are based on ______ or rules of thumb.
intuition
The most recent versions of heuristic theory propose that two cognitive systems are used to make judgments: ______ and reasoning.
intuition
System 2 is a(n) ______, conscious, and deliberately controlled process.
effortful
The text suggests that the rational-choice model failed to predict actual behavior and that evidence accumulated that falsified the ______ theory.
rational-choice
The text suggests that System 1 does not always produce an incorrect answer, nor one that is ______ than one produced by System 2.
poorer
The text states that the alternative theory proposed in the early 1970s that people use ______ to make judgments.
heuristics
Most people’s immediate judgment is that the ball costs ______.
10 cents
The ball can’t cost ______ cents because then the bat would have to be $1, which would make it only 90 cents more than the ball.
10
The more effortful deliberately controlled reasoning, or System ______, process usually produces a different, and correct, answer.
2
When people spend the time and effort to think about the problem, they usually realize the ball must cost ______ cents and the bat must cost $1.05.
5
Hence, in this example, the two systems produce different ______.
judgments
It would be a mistake to conclude that System ______ always produces different judgments than System 2, however.
1
Nor does System 1 always produce an ______ answer, nor one that is poorer than one produced by System 2.
incorrect
The associational processes used in System 1 that make expert performance so quick and powerful are the same processes that are responsible for systematic errors that experts sometimes ______.
make
Additional weaknesses of System 1 are that it depends on the quality and amount of ______ an individual possesses, and it can’t be used effectively in novel situations.
experience
System 2 reasoning also has its strengths and ______.
weaknesses
While it is highly useful in novel situations and problems, it is also ______ and effortful.
slow
According to the dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s, people made judgments by calculating (1) the probability and (2) the utility of competing options.
rational-choice model
In the 1950’s, however, researchers began to notice that the model failed to predict actual behavior.
Meehl, 1954; Simon, 1957
The “new” theory was, and continues to be, supported by empirical study.
heuristic theory
The heuristic theory states that many judgments are based on ______ or rules of thumb.
intuition
The most recent versions of heuristic theory propose that ______ are used to make judgments.
two cognitive systems
The first system, ______, is a quick, automatic, implicit process.
intuition
The other system, ______, is effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled.
reasoning
Since the 1970’s, multiple and similar two-process theories have referred to the implicit associational type of process as ______, and the conscious deliberate process, as System 2.
System 1
The following ______ shows how these two processes may lead to different judgments.
example
The associational processes used in System 1 that make expert performance so quick and powerful are the same processes that are responsible for systematic errors that experts sometimes ______.
make
The dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s stated that people made judgments by calculating (1) the probability and (2) the ______ of competing options.
utility
The heuristic theory states that many judgments are based on ______ or rules of thumb.
intuition
The most recent versions of heuristic theory propose that two cognitive systems are used to make judgments: System 1 and ______.
reasoning
The first system, intuition, is a quick, automatic, implicit process that has been proposed to explain ______.
judgment
The other system, reasoning, is ______, conscious, and deliberately controlled.
effortful
Since the 1970’s, multiple and similar two-process theories have referred to the implicit associational type of process as System 1, and the conscious deliberate process as ______ 2.
System
The following example shows how these two processes may lead to ______ judgments.
different
The associational processes used in System 1 that make expert performance so quick and powerful are the same processes that are responsible for systematic errors that experts sometimes ______.
commit
The primary function of System 1 in the two-process theories is ______.
intuition
The two cognitive systems proposed by the most recent versions of heuristic theory are System 1 and ______.
System 2
The more effortful deliberately controlled reasoning, or System 2, process usually produces a different, and ______, answer.
correct
System 2 reasoning also has its strengths and weaknesses. While it is highly useful in novel situations and problems, it is also slow and ______.
effortful
The similarities between descriptions of critical thinking and System 2 are ______.
striking
Most recent theories, however, believe that Systems 1 and 2 run in parallel and work together, capitalizing on each other’s strengths and ______ for their weaknesses.
compensating
For example, many researchers believe that one function of the controlled deliberate process is to ______ the products of the automatic process.
monitor
The words “effortful, controlled, deliberate, purposeful, and conscious” are frequently used to describe ______.
System 2
The text suggests that many judgments are based on ______ or rules of thumb.
intuition
The alternative theory proposed that people use ______ to make judgments, as opposed to the rational weighing of relevant factors.
associations
The recent theory proposes the use of two cognitive systems to make judgments: System 1 and ______.
System 2
System 2 is a(n) ______, conscious, and ______ly controlled process.
deliberate
True or false: The bat and ball together cost $1.10.
True
True or false: Most people's initial judgment is that the ball costs 10 cents.
True
True or false: The ball actually costs 10 cents.
False
True or false: The bat costs $1 more than the ball.
True
True or false: The bat costs $1.05.
True
True or false: System 1 is quick, automatic, and relies on associations.
True
True or false: System 2 is slow and effortful.
True
True or false: System 1 is always more accurate than System 2.
False
True or false: System 1 depends on the quality and amount of experience an individual possesses.
True
True or false: System 2 can be utilized concurrently with other tasks.
False
True or false: The dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970’s stated that people made judgments by calculating the probability and utility of competing options.
True
True or false: The rational-choice model failed to predict actual behavior according to researchers in the 1950’s.
True
True or false: The alternative theory proposed in the early 1970s stated that people use heuristics to make judgments instead of weighing relevant factors.
True
True or false: The heuristic theory proposes that all judgments are made intuitively.
False
True or false: The most recent versions of heuristic theory propose that there are two cognitive systems used to make judgments.
True
True or false: The first cognitive system used to make judgments is called intuition.
True
True or false: The second cognitive system used to make judgments is called reasoning.
True
True or false: Many researchers now use associational strengths to arrive at solutions.
True
True or false: System 2 is a quick, automatic, and implicit process.
False
True or false: System 1 is effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled.
False
Quiz: The Evolution of Decision Making Theories Test your knowledge on the evolution of decision making theories. This quiz covers the transition from the dominant rational-choice model to the emergence of new perspectives in the 1950s. Explore how our understanding of decision making has evolved over time and discover key concepts that have shaped contemporary theories.
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