Cognitive Psychology: Information Processing Model

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What are the key concepts of the Information Processing Model outlined in the text?

  • Sensory Memory, Perception, Attention, and Short Term Memory
  • Perception, Sensation, Input, and Attention
  • Input, Sensory Memory, Pattern Recognition, and Top-Down Processing
  • Input, Sensory Memory, Pattern Recognition, and Bottom-Up Processing (correct)

Who are credited with developing the Information Processing Model?

  • Sperling and Miller
  • Atkinson and Shiffrin (correct)
  • Broadbent and Treisman
  • James and Wundt

What does the term 'Input' refer to as it relates to perception?

  • The brief storage of sensory information
  • The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
  • The raw data that is received through our senses (correct)
  • The stage in the perception process where we make sense of patterns

What is the primary focus of cognitive psychology in this context?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT explicitly stated in the document as a topic that will be covered in the course?

<p>Attention (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main result of Sperling's (1960) replication of the standard perceptual span experiment?

<p>The perceptual span limit was found to be about 4.5 items even for displays that were less than an eye fixation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Sperling's subjects report regarding their experience with the stimuli in his experiment?

<p>They perceived the whole display but lost access to parts of it during the report. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term "whole report" refer to in Sperling's experiment?

<p>Reporting all items in a display regardless of their location. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the key question addressed in Sperling's partial report experiment?

<p>Is partial report accuracy equivalent to whole report accuracy when combined across different cued locations? (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the novel contribution of Sperling's research based on the content provided?

<p>Sperling proposed a model of sensory memory called iconic memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of interpreting and understanding sensory information called?

<p>Perception (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of photoreceptors in the eye, and what are their respective functions?

<p>Cones - detect color, Rods - detect light intensity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the pathway of visual information processing from the eye to the brain?

<p>Photoreceptors -&gt; Bipolar Cells -&gt; Ganglion Cells -&gt; Visual Cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a saccade?

<p>The quick movement of the eyes from one location to another (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate duration of a typical saccade?

<p>25-175 msec (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate duration of a typical fixation?

<p>200 msec or less (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the meaning of "perceptual span (span of apprehension)"?

<p>The number of items that can be perceived at a single glance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was George Sperling's contribution to our understanding of perception?

<p>He conducted research on the limits of visual perception in single glances (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the "Inverse Projection Problem" in the context of designing a perceiving machine?

<p>The inability to determine the original source of a given image due to the infinite possible sources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What point is made regarding the use of autonomous vehicle crash statistics?

<p>Autonomous vehicles have a lower crash rate compared to humans, but this is not easily comparable because most crashes are caused by human error. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT listed as a challenge in designing a perceiving machine?

<p>The difficulty in distinguishing between real and virtual objects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary message conveyed in the text about perception?

<p>Perception is a complex process that is not easily replicated by machines. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely implication of the statement "Seeming ease leads to trivializing" as it relates to the topic of perception?

<p>The ease with which humans perceive the world can lead to overlooking the effort and resources required to create similar functionality in machines. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a Gestalt Principle of Perceptual Organization?

<p>Law of Closure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Helmholtz's Unconscious Inference suggest?

<p>We make unconscious assumptions about the world based on our experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'Oblique Effect' suggest about our perception?

<p>We perceive vertical and horizontal lines more easily than other angles. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a regularity of the environment mentioned in the text?

<p>Proximity Principle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Palmer (1975) studied the influence of context on perception. What did his research demonstrate?

<p>Humans are better at perceiving objects in their natural environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'prior probability' in Bayesian Inference?

<p>The probability of an event based on previous knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does movement facilitate perception?

<p>Movement provides us with multiple views of an object, leading to a more accurate perception. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts emphasizes the role of prior knowledge in perception?

<p>Bayesian Inference (B), Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a 'Scene Schema' as described in the text?

<p>Expecting to see diamond rings in a display case at Tiffany's. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between 'Direct Perception' and 'Constructive Perception'?

<p>Direct Perception involves bottom-up processing, while Constructive Perception involves top-down processing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Sperling find in his partial report experiment regarding the number of items reported?

<p>The number of items reported was significantly higher when participants were asked to report all items compared to when they were asked to report only a few items. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of Experiment 2 in Sperling's iconic memory research?

<p>To test whether the iconic image fades over time and impacts partial report advantage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What prediction was made in Experiment 2 regarding the effect of a delay before the cue signal in the 'No Icon' condition?

<p>The partial report advantage would be eliminated with longer delays. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the key finding of Averbach & Coriell's (1961) study?

<p>The use of a circle as the cue instead of a bar marker significantly reduced the accuracy of the partial report. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the finding that the iconic image decays and is lost rapidly?

<p>It indicates that sensory memory is a short-lived but important stage in visual information processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a conclusion drawn from Sperling's research on iconic memory?

<p>Perceptual span is a reliable measure of the amount of information perceived. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main question being addressed in Sperling's Experiment 3?

<p>What is the format of representation in iconic memory? (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the findings of Sperling's experiments, what can be said about the relationship between sensory memory and attention?

<p>Sensory memory is crucial for the selection and processing of information during attention. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between the partial report condition and the whole report condition in Sperling's experiments?

<p>The presence or absence of a cue signal to indicate which items to recall. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of Sperling's iconic memory research for our understanding of visual perception?

<p>Visual perception involves a brief sensory memory stage that allows for a quick snapshot of the visual world. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of iconic memory as described by Sperling?

<p>It is directly accessible to conscious awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using the partial report method in Sperling's experiments?

<p>It allows for the assessment of a larger portion of the displayed information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the concept of 'iconic image' in the context of Sperling's research?

<p>It is a brief, temporary representation of the visual scene that fades rapidly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary theoretical implication of the findings that the iconic image decays rapidly?

<p>The iconic image serves as a temporary buffer for visual information, allowing for further processing by higher cognitive functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sperling's research on iconic memory contributed significantly to our understanding of which aspect of human cognition?

<p>The nature of sensory memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between Sperling's work and the concept of 'attentional bottleneck'?

<p>Sperling's work provides evidence for an attentional bottleneck that operates within sensory memory, filtering the information that is passed on to further processing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Experiment 1 in Sperling's iconic memory research?

<p>It demonstrated the existence of iconic memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the theoretical limit on the capacity of short-term memory, according to Miller’s (1956) analysis?

<p>7 ± 2 chunks (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'chunk' in short-term memory, according to the provided text?

<p>A collection of elements strongly associated with each other (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'recoding' relate to the capacity of short-term memory?

<p>Recoding changes the meaning of information in short-term memory, but it doesn't affect capacity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can the concept of 'mnemonic' be used to improve memory?

<p>Mnemonics help us store information more efficiently in long-term memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between short-term memory chunks and long-term memory?

<p>Chunks in short-term memory function as pointers to information stored in long-term memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the 'Change Detection Task' in the context of the provided text?

<p>To estimate the capacity of short-term memory by identifying differences between two presented displays (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a reason why 'Chunks' in short-term memory could be considered unequal?

<p>The overall length of time a chunk is retained in short-term memory varies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the 'Change Detection Task' considered a suitable method for estimating short-term memory capacity?

<p>It requires participants to actively compare and contrast information, thus revealing their memory limitations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Keppel & Underwood's (1962) study, what is the independent variable?

<p>Retention interval (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is a characteristic of Proactive Interference (PI)?

<p>Older material interferes with the recollection of newer material. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Wickens' (1972) 'Release from PI' experiment, the experimental group is exposed to a new category of items in Trial 4. What is the purpose of this?

<p>To reduce the impact of proactive interference by switching categories. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential confound in Keppel & Underwood's study?

<p>The counting task that participants performed during the retention interval. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the difference between RI and PI?

<p>RI involves interference from older material, while PI involves interference from newer material. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point being made by the content about forgetting in short-term memory?

<p>Forgetting in short-term memory is a complex process that can be influenced by both decay and interference. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the graph in the content demonstrate concerning the relationship between forgetting in short-term memory and retention intervals?

<p>Forgetting in short-term memory is a gradual process that occurs over a longer period of time, with a decline in performance after approximately 3 seconds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Waugh & Norman (1965) manipulate the presentation rate of items in their experiment?

<p>They varied the amount of time between each item being presented, using either a 1-second interval or a 4-second interval. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary conclusion drawn from Waugh & Norman's (1965) study concerning the influence of presentation rate on forgetting in short-term memory?

<p>Forgetting in short-term memory is primarily influenced by the number of interfering items, rather than the presentation rate itself. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the alternative explanation presented in the content regarding forgetting in short-term memory?

<p>Forgetting may be caused by the interference from the task of counting itself, rather than simply by the passage of time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Brown (1958) and Peterson & Peterson's (1959) study regarding forgetting in short-term memory?

<p>Brown's study used a different type of memory task than Peterson &amp; Peterson's study, resulting in different findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key contribution of Alvarez and Cavanaugh (2004) to our understanding of short-term memory capacity?

<p>They demonstrated that short-term memory capacity is not fixed but can be influenced by the complexity of the items being remembered. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the research by Waugh & Norman (1965) as it relates to short-term memory?

<p>To explore the impact of interference from other items on short-term memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the document, what are the key characteristics of a memory store?

<p>Transfer, Capacity, Forgetting, Representation, Retrieval (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of cognitive psychology as discussed in the document?

<p>Studying mental processes like memory, attention, and perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the document, which of the following is NOT a key component of the Information Processing Model?

<p>Working Memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of 'Transfer' as it relates to memory stores?

<p>How information is copied into a store (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the main topics covered in this lecture on cognitive psychology?

<p>Attention, Short-term Memory, Working Memory, Perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between serial recall and free recall?

<p>Serial recall requires remembering the order of items, while free recall does not. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'asymptote' represent in the Serial Position Curve?

<p>The average level of memory performance for items in the middle of the list. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of increasing distraction on the Serial Position Curve?

<p>It reduces both the primacy and recency effects. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between word frequency and memory performance in the Serial Position Curve?

<p>High-frequency words show a stronger primacy effect than low-frequency words. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the 'concept of dissociation' in the context of memory research?

<p>To demonstrate that different memory systems operate independently. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key characteristic of a double dissociation in memory research?

<p>Two different memory systems are affected in opposite ways by one or more independent variables. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a valid reason for suggesting that working memory and long-term memory are different?

<p>Working memory primarily uses phonological representation, while long-term memory stores information in a sensory form. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary difference between sensory memory and working memory?

<p>Sensory memory is short-lived and iconic, while working memory is long-lasting and semantic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding of Sperling's (1960) partial report experiment regarding the number of items reported compared to the whole report experiment?

<p>Participants reported fewer items in the whole report condition than in the partial report condition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of iconic memory as demonstrated by Sperling's research?

<p>Iconic memory is a form of long-term memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary theoretical implication of Sperling's research on iconic memory?

<p>It supports the idea that attention is a necessary component of perception. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using the partial report method in Sperling's iconic memory research?

<p>It allows for a more precise measurement of iconic memory capacity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between iconic memory and short-term memory?

<p>Iconic memory is very brief, while short-term memory can last for several minutes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of coding does Conrad (1964) suggest is used in working memory based on sound-alike errors?

<p>Acoustic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's Working Memory Model?

<p>Sensory Memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between the 'Serial Exhaustive Search' and the 'Serial Self-Terminating Search' models of working memory?

<p>The Serial Exhaustive Search examines all items in the memory set, while the Serial Self-Terminating Search stops once a match is found. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the Sternberg (1966) experiments on working memory retrieval using the recognition task demonstrate about the relationship between response time and memory set size?

<p>Response time increases linearly with memory set size. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main contribution of the 'Release from Proactive Interference (PI)' effect to our understanding of working memory?

<p>It highlights the importance of semantic coding in working memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the function of the 'Articulatory Rehearsal Process' in Baddeley's Working Memory Model?

<p>It refreshes and maintains auditory information in the phonological loop. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'Episodic Buffer' in Baddeley's Working Memory Model differ from the other components?

<p>It integrates information from multiple sources and modalities into a unified representation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) shift from 'short-term memory' to 'working memory'?

<p>Working memory focuses on the active processing and manipulation of information, rather than just passive storage. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Brooks' (1968) study, why did performance suffer when the required response format matched the primary task format?

<p>It highlights the interference between the two systems responsible for processing the different types of information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'Additive Factors Model' used to analyze?

<p>The processes involved in working memory retrieval (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the function of the Central Executive in Baddeley's Working Memory Model?

<p>It controls and coordinates the activity of the different working memory components. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately reflects the findings of Wickelgren (1965)?

<p>Acoustic interference from rhyming distractors disrupts working memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What principle is demonstrated by the "release from proactive interference (PI)" phenomenon in Wickens' experiments on short-term memory?

<p>Semantic coding plays a significant role in short-term memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do Shephard & Metzler (1971) demonstrate visual coding in working memory?

<p>They demonstrated that people can mentally rotate images. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the 'Phonological Store' in Baddeley's Working Memory Model?

<p>It temporarily holds and maintains auditory information in working memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key concept did Sternberg (1966, 1969) contribute to the understanding of working memory?

<p>A method for measuring working memory retrieval using recognition instead of recall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Information Processing Model

A framework describing how the brain processes information in stages; includes sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

The initial, brief storage of sensory information, lasting only a few seconds.

Pattern Recognition

The cognitive process of matching incoming sensory information with stored memories to identify objects and events.

Bottom-Up Processing

A perception process that starts with the sensory input and builds up to a final perception.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Top-Down Processing

A perception process that uses prior knowledge and experiences to interpret sensory information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Perceptual Span

The maximum number of items a person can perceive and report at once, typically around 4.5 items.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Iconic Memory

A brief sensory memory for visual stimuli, lasting a fraction of a second.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sperling's Experiment

A study demonstrating the limitations of perceptual span using visual stimuli and tone cues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Whole Report

A method where subjects report all items seen in a visual display.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Partial Report

A method where subjects report a cued portion of the displayed information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sensation

The reception and initial encoding of stimulation from the environment into the nervous system.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Perception

The process of interpreting and understanding sensory information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Photoreceptors

Cells in the retina (cones and rods) that capture light and initiate vision.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Cones

Photoreceptors that are sensitive to color (red, green, blue).

Signup and view all the flashcards

Rods

Photoreceptors that are sensitive to luminance and help in low light conditions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Saccades

Quick movements of the eyes from one location to another, lasting 25-175 msec.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Fixation

A brief period when the eyes stop moving to process the visual scene, lasting 200 msec or less.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Inverse Projection Problem

The challenge of determining the possible sources of a retinal image, as there are infinite possibilities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Viewpoint Invariance

The concept that objects can appear different depending on the angle from which they are viewed, yet are recognized as the same object.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Availability Bias

A cognitive bias where people tend to overestimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Signup and view all the flashcards

High-Level Information in Scenes

The complex and advanced details contained within visual scenes that provide context and meaning.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Autonomous Statistics Misleading

The idea that statistics regarding autonomous systems, like self-driving cars, may not fully reflect reality due to human error biases.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Direct Perception

Accounts for perception directly from environmental stimuli without prior knowledge.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Constructive Perception

Perception is shaped by prior knowledge and expectations rather than just stimuli.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Principle of Similarity

Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together in perception.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Principle of Good Continuation

Lines are perceived as following the smoothest path, ignoring abrupt changes.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Law of Pragnanz

We perceive objects in their simplest form, seeking simplicity in patterns.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference

Perception results from unconscious assumptions based on past experiences.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Oblique Effect

Vertical and horizontal orientations are easier to perceive due to regular exposure.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Light-from-Above Assumption

We assume light sources typically come from above in the environment.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Scene Schema

Knowledge of common elements in a given scene enhances perception.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Bayesian Inference

Perception estimates are influenced by prior probability and outcome likelihood.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Whole Report Method

A technique where participants recall all items from a displayed array at once.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Partial Report Method

Participants recall only a subset of items from a displayed array, typically cued by a signal.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Cued Recall

A memory task where participants recall information with the help of prompts or cues.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Averbach & Coriell Experiment

A study that used a bar marker to cue specific locations in a recall task, reducing memory demands.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Decay of Icon

The process where the iconic image fades quickly after its display disappears.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Delay Before Report Signal

The time interval before participants are instructed to recall items, affecting memory performance.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sperling (1960) Study

A landmark study investigating the format and duration of iconic memory using visual arrays.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Memory Demands

The cognitive load required to recall information from memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Information Persistence

The phenomenon where visual information lingers for a brief time even after removal.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Rapid Memory Loss

The swift forgetting of visual information after the stimulus is gone.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Performance Variation

Changes in recall accuracy based on different conditions in memory experiments.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Optimal Performance

The best results achieved under ideal experimental conditions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Visual Array Size

The number of items displayed simultaneously during a memory task.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Capacity of Short-term Memory

The limit of short-term memory is approximately 7 ± 2 chunks.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Chunk

A chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with each other but weakly associated with others.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Recoding

Recoding involves packing more information into each chunk to maximize memory capacity.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mnemonic

A mnemonic is a memory technique used to improve retention, derived from the Greek word for memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Change Detection Task

A method used to estimate short-term memory capacity by examining how well changes in a visual display are detected.

Signup and view all the flashcards

What are STM Chunks?

STM chunks are groups of information stored in short-term memory that can point to long-term memory representations.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Long-term Memory Pointer

Chunks act as pointers to related information stored in long-term memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Elements of a Chunk

Elements within a chunk are strongly associated, while those of different chunks are less so.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Retroactive Interference

Newer material interferes with recollection of older items.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Proactive Interference

Older material interferes with recollection of newer items.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Release from PI

An experimental condition where proactive interference is reduced.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Interference in Memory

When one memory disrupts the recall of another memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Retention Interval

The time period between learning and recall of information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Short-term Memory

A type of memory that holds a small amount of information for a brief time.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Forgetting in Memory

The process of losing information stored in memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Information Transfer

The process by which information is copied into memory storage.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Memory Retrieval

The process of recovering information from memory storage when needed.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Change Detection Procedure

A method used to assess visual memory by identifying changes in a stimulus, such as colored squares or complex objects.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Forgetting in STM

Loss of information in short-term memory due to decay over time or interference.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Interference

When new information disrupts the recall of previously learned material, particularly during memory tasks.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Proportion Correct

A measure of accuracy in memory tasks, indicating the percentage of items correctly recalled.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Counting Task Effects

The impact of performing a counting task on memory performance, often revealing interference.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Waugh & Norman Experiment

A study demonstrating how the number of interfering items affects memory recall speed and accuracy.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Probe Recall Method

A technique where subjects must recall a specific item from memory based on a given prompt.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Recoding in Working Memory

Verbal information transforms into auditory format in working memory.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sound-alike Errors

Errors in working memory caused by similar-sounding words.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Release from Proactive Interference (PI)

When new semantic codes replace old ones, improving recall.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Mental Rotation

The ability to visualize and rotate objects in your mind.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sternberg's Paradigm

A method to study memory retrieval using recognition instead of recall.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Response Time (RT)

The time taken to respond to a probe in memory tests.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Exhaustive vs. Self-Terminating Search

Exhaustive searches check all items, while self-terminating stop when a match is found.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Parallel Scanning

A method where all items are examined at once during a memory test.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Central Executive of Working Memory

The main component that directs and controls memory functions.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Visuo-spatial Sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial information for manipulation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Phonological Loop

Stores and recycles auditory information via subvocalization.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Episodic Buffer

Binds together information from different sources and modalities.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Brooks' Results

Responses in the same format as the memory task hinder performance.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Scanning Task Effects

Geometric relationship between response time and the size of the memory set.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Working Memory Limits

Working memory struggles when similar types of information are present simultaneously.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Working Memory (WM)

A limited capacity system for temporarily storing and manipulating information, typically around 7±2 items.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Sensory Memory (SM)

The initial and brief storage of sensory information, holding raw data for a few seconds.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Serial Recall

A method of recalling items in the exact order they were presented.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Free Recall

A method to remember items without needing to maintain the order of presentation.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Primacy Effect

Better memory for items presented at the beginning of a sequence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Recency Effect

Better memory for items presented at the end of a sequence.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Asymptote

Average memory performance for items in the middle of a sequence, not as strong as primacy or recency.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Dissociation

A phenomenon where one independent variable affects one aspect differently than another aspect.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Double Dissociation

Two independent variables affect two memory aspects in opposite ways.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Distraction Impact on WM

Distraction significantly interferes with working memory but not with long-term memory performance.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Word Frequency Effect

The phenomenon where common words are remembered better than rare ones.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Rate of Presentation

How quickly items are shown can affect memory recall accuracy.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Information Decay

The fading of information over time when not actively recalled or reinforced.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Capacity of Long-term Memory

Long-term memory has an essentially unlimited capacity for storing information.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Attentional Selection

The process of focusing on specific information while ignoring others based on physical characteristics.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Study Notes

Psychology 221: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology - Perception

  • Course: Psychology 221, Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
  • Instructor: Thomas Spalek
  • Week: 2
  • Chapter: 3
  • Topic: Perception

Plan for Today

  • Input
  • Sensory Memory
  • Pattern Recognition
  • Bottom-Up vs Top-Down Processing

Information Processing Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)

  • Input → Sensory registers (Visual, Auditory, Haptic) → Rehearsal → Short-term memory → Long-term memory → Output
  • Information flows through these stages.
  • Rehearsal is crucial for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.

Sensation vs. Perception

  • Sensation: The reception of environment stimulation and its initial encoding into the nervous system.
  • Perception: The process of interpreting and understanding sensory information.

Input: The Eye

  • Detailed diagram of the eye with labels (e.g., cornea, lens, iris, retina, optic nerve).
  • Key structures are explained
  • Light enters the eye, passing through the cornea, the pupil, and the lens.
  • The lens focuses the light onto the retina.
  • The retina contains photoreceptors (cones and rods).
  • Rods and cones stimulate the bipolar cells and ganglion cells, which transmit signals to the optic nerve and brain.

Photoreceptors

  • Cones: Responsible for color vision (Red, Green, Blue).
  • Rods: Responsible for luminance vision (white/black vision).
  • Rods are more sensitive to low light than cones.

Distribution of Photoreceptors

  • High density of cones in the fovea (center of the retina).
  • High density of rods outside the fovea.
  • The blind spot is where the optic nerve leaves the eye.

Refining the Input

  • Photoreceptors → Bipolar Cells → Ganglion Cells → Visual Cortex.
  • Information is refined and processed as it moves from the retina to the brain.

Saccades and Fixations

  • Saccade: Quick eye movements from one location to another. (25-175 msec).
  • Fixation: Brief stops in eye movement to process the visual scene. (typically 200 msec or less).

Perceptual Span

  • Perceptual span: Number of items a person can identify in a brief display without eye movements. Approximately 4.5 items.

George Sperling (1960)

  • Sperling's research challenged the concept of limited perceptual span.
  • Introduced the concept of iconic memory as a sensory store. Specifically challenged the notion that perceptual span is 4.5 items for 10-200 msec displays.

Sperling (1960; Experiment 1)

  • Whole Report: Subjects attempted to report all items seen after brief display. (35% of items accurate).
  • Partial Report: Subjects were cued (after the brief display) to report items in specific locations of the array. (82% of items accurate).
  • Sperling’s results supported a much larger initial sensory store than suggested by previous research.
  • Sperling's findings support the existence of iconic memory.

Sperling (1960; Experiment 2)

  • Varied delay times before the cue and found decay in this iconic memory.
  • Supported the idea that iconic memory fades.

Sperling (1960; Experiment 3)

  • Focused on the format of representation in iconic memory.
  • Supports the notion that iconic memory preserves a raw, uninterpreted visual image; without any higher-level processing.
  • Results of the variations of the reporting tasks demonstrate different properties of iconic memory.

Sperling (1963) – Duration of Iconic Memory

  • Explores the duration of iconic memory as the duration of exposure to a stimulus changes.
  • Attempt to capture timing of pattern recognition from sensory store.
  • Methodology contained a flaw. The flaw was that Sperling's 1963 methodology mistakenly assumed subjects could extract information from the iconic memory at any point during the actual display.

Problem and Solution

  • Problem: Sperling's 1963 methodology mistakenly assumed subjects could extract information from iconic memory at any point during the actual display.
  • Solution: Results illustrate how iconic memory decays rapidly, typically lasting only a fraction of a second.

Sperling’s Conclusions-Summary

  • Pattern recognition occurs rapidly at a rate of roughly 1 letter every 10 msec, up to a maximum of 5 items.
  • Pattern recognition is at least partially determined by short-term memory capacity.
  • Sensory store contains a considerable amount of unprocessed information.

Summary

  • Sensory memory holds unprocessed sensory information.
  • Sensory memory has a large capacity.
  • Information in sensory memory decays rapidly.
  • Information is transferred to short-term memory.

Pattern Recognition – Template Theories

  • Template: A pattern stored in memory and matched directly to incoming stimuli.
  • Examples: Bar codes, numbers on checks.

Problems with Template Matching

  • Orientation variations complicate accurate matches.
  • Need for multiple templates for pattern variations.

Feature Theories

  • Features: Distinctive elements make a pattern.
  • A feature theory aims to describe a pattern in terms of its elements
  • Examples used in letter recognition, such as Selfridge's model.

Selfridge (1959)

  • Detailed model, but overall useful model for feature theories of perception.

Bottom-up vs Top-down processing

  • Bottom-up: Processing begins with sensory data (Bottom) and ends with a representation of the stimulus. Lower-level processing isn’t affected by higher-level concerns.
  • Top-down: Higher-level knowledge or expectations influence the interpretation of sensory input.

Direct vs Constructive Perception

  • Direct perception theories: Perception relies on sensory data alone; Perception comes from the stimuli itself
  • Constructive perception theories: Perception involves actively constructing perceptions using knowledge and expectations.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

  • Rules that govern how features are grouped together.
    • Similarity
    • Good continuation
    • Law of Prägnanz (simplicity)

Helmholtz's Unconscious Inference

  • Our perceptions use inferences based on assumptions and likelihood principle. Likelihood principle: we perceive things in a way that is most likely based on our background.

Regularities of the Environment

  • Common properties of the environment affect perception
    • Common physical regularities (e.g., verticals and horizontals)
    • Common semantic regularities (E.g. understanding a given scene)
    • Oblique effect
    • Light from above

Palmer (1975)

  • Studied visual context effects.

Features in Context

  • Context influences recognition.

Bayesian Inference

  • One's estimation of an outcome is assessed by prior information and the likelihood of outcome.

Movement Facilitates Perception

  • Movement increases perceptual complexity.

Difficulty in Designing Perceiving Machines

  • Inverse projection problem: Infinite number of stimuli that create the same retinal image.
  • Viewpoint invariance: Objects can be observed in varying orientations (from different viewpoints)
  • Scenes contain high-level information. Scenes are more complex.

Too soon?

  • Availability bias: We don't account for how biases can affect decision making.
  • Are the statistics seen in autonomous vehicles too soon to draw meaningful comparisons to human error? ~90% of crashes are due to human error; autonomous driving statistics might be misleading.

Seeming ease leads to trivialization

  • Perception is more complicated than it seems and the processes underlying recognition are complex.

Perception is complicated

  • Illustrates that our perception is not always simple, clear, or in one dimension.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Quiz Team

Related Documents

Psychology 221: Intro. to Cog. Psych. Perception PDF
Psychology 221: Short-Term Memory PDF

More Like This

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Open
Browser
Browser