Cognitive Psychology: Imagery and Spatial Reasoning
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Questions and Answers

According to the study, what is the primary factor that influences the length of time it takes to answer questions about mental images?

  • The size of the mental image
  • The distance of the parts from the original point of focus (correct)
  • The complexity of the mental image
  • The type of imagery being used (visual, auditory, or motor)

    • What is the key finding regarding the brain regions activated during visual imagery tasks?

  • About 70-90% of the same brain regions are activated during visual imagery and visual perception (correct)
  • No brain regions are activated during visual imagery tasks
  • Only 20-30% of the same brain regions are activated during visual imagery and visual perception
  • About 50% of the same brain regions are activated during visual imagery and visual perception

    • What is the primary difference between analog and propositional coding?

  • Analog coding uses pictorial representations, while propositional coding uses descriptive representations (correct)
  • Analog coding is faster, while propositional coding is slower
  • Analog coding uses descriptive representations, while propositional coding uses pictorial representations
  • Analog coding is used for visual imagery, while propositional coding is used for auditory imagery

    • What is the effect of visual imagery on visual perception, according to the study?

    <p>Visual imagery interferes with visual perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of people with prosopagnosia, according to the study?

    <p>They have difficulty creating mental images of faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common challenge people face when trying to identify a part of a whole?

    <p>They have not included the part in their original verbal description of the whole.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary viewpoint supported by the majority of research on mental imagery?

    <p>Analog viewpoint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to reinterpret a mental image in a different way?

    <p>Reinterpretation flexibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of individuals who tend to be visualizers?

    <p>They tend to use analog coding for mental imagery.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to create a clear mental image of a figure?

    <p>Visual imagery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary objective of the aim in visual processing at the algorithmic level?

    <p>To develop a formal procedure for solving visual problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the 2.5-D sketch in Marr's model of visual processing?

    <p>To represent the surface layout and viewer-centered perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the 3-D sketch in Marr's model?

    <p>It is based on the symmetry and elongation axes of the object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main problem addressed by the third stage of Marr's model of visual processing?

    <p>Establishing object constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of edges and contours in Marr's model of visual processing?

    <p>To determine the basic features of an object, including line segments and circular shapes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the level of analysis where the hardware used to implement the representations and algorithms is considered?

    <p>Implementational level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the finding of the study where participants were exposed to two odors, cigarette smoke and rotten fish, during sleep?

    <p>They were less likely to crave cigarettes during the following week</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the unconscious activation of particular associations in memory?

    <p>Priming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sleep stage during which the olfactory aversive conditioning was most effective?

    <p>Stage 2 sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the result of the 'cramming' study where participants learned to play piano melodies before a 90-minute nap?

    <p>They were able to play the cued melody more accurately after waking up</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the scrambled-sentence test?

    <p>To test language processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the finding regarding subliminal messaging and food craving?

    <p>Subliminal messaging has no effect on food craving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that influences the effectiveness of music on purchasing decisions?

    <p>The mode of the music (major or minor)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where people are influenced by subtle cues, such as music, without being consciously aware of it?

    <p>Subliminal messaging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the study by Hansen and Melzner (2014) regarding the effect of music on decision making?

    <p>Music can influence decision making, but only for aggregate information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the type of music that is most effective for purchasing decisions with high affective and low cognitive involvement?

    <p>Minor mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the groups in the study by Hansen and Melzner (2014) regarding the effect of music on decision making?

    <p>One group listened to consonant chords, while the other group listened to dissonant chords</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of the study by Milliman (1986) regarding the effect of music on consumer behavior?

    <p>Slow music leads to increased sales</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between introverts and extraverts in terms of their response to sensory stimulation?

    <p>Introverts are more sensitive to pain and retain elevated heart rate for a longer time period after exposure to noxious odors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of synesthesia?

    <p>Grapheme-color synesthesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the study conducted at the Science Museum in London?

    <p>Synesthetes designed animations that better matched the music</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of subliminal perception on behavior?

    <p>It can influence behavior, and the effect can last for a long time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary theory of synesthesia?

    <p>Synesthetes have more connections between neurons in their brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the experiment in which emotionally positive scenes were subliminally flashed before participants viewed slides of faces?

    <p>Participants rated the faces more positively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of tutoring and learning is attributed to motivation?

    <p>90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying assumption of traditional IQ tests that can undermine motivation and learning?

    <p>Intelligence is fixed and innate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of a growth mindset intervention in students, according to the research by Dweck and Blackwell (2007)?

    <p>Improved study skills and grades</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of students tends to hold a growth mindset less often than their peers, according to the research by Claro, Paunescu, and Dweck (2016)?

    <p>Low-income students</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of teaching a child to read by finding a subject they are interested in?

    <p>To increase motivation and engagement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of programs that develop a growth mindset, according to the research by Sisk, Burgoyne, Sun, et al. (2018)?

    <p>Most beneficial for students with low socioeconomic status or who are academically at risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limitation of behaviorist theory is revealed in Edward Tolman's experiments on cognitive mapping in rats?

    <p>That learning can occur even when no reinforcement is received and no response is made</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using visual feedback in teaching math concepts, as proposed by Matthew Peterson?

    <p>It provides immediate visual feedback, clearing up mysteries about how and why math works</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of offering rewards for an activity, according to the overjustification effect?

    <p>Decreased motivation and interest in the activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of people with aphantasia, a condition where one is unable to visualize?

    <p>They have difficulty picturing faces and remembering directions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What approach to teaching math is advocated by Matthew Peterson, and what is its primary benefit?

    <p>Language-free approach, primary benefit is improved math proficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the learning approach of expert tutors and traditional teaching methods?

    <p>Expert tutors will do anything to avoid telling a child they are wrong, while traditional teaching methods focus on correcting mistakes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the study on implementing a visual, language-free math software program in 106 schools?

    <p>The program was able to triple the rate of growth in math proficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of verbalizers, according to the research on neural correlates of visual vs. verbal cognitive styles?

    <p>They show more activation in the supramarginal gyrus area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using a visual, language-free approach to teaching math, according to Matthew Peterson?

    <p>It sparks mathematical talk and helps students develop a deeper understanding of math concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of the overjustification effect for learning and motivation?

    <p>That rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of activities can increase one's chances of remaining sharp into old age?

    <p>Those that require hard work and cause one to feel somewhat tired, stymied, frustrated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which regions of the brain are thicker in successful agers than in regular agers?

    <p>Those regulating emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a reason for forgetting information?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of foreign language vocabulary, idioms, and grammar did people remember 50 years later?

    <p>40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of broad general facts and research methods did people who had taken psychology class remember 10 years later?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is central to the formation of explicit memories?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the unconscious activation of particular associations in memory?

    <p>Priming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for developing neurocognitive disorders, according to a 2017 study?

    <p>Hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of anticholinergics on the brain?

    <p>Reduced brain volume and lower glucose metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of staying physically active and nonobese?

    <p>Lower risk of developing neurocognitive disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of research on the relationship between education and Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Higher education provides protection against Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of individuals who tend to be visualizers?

    <p>They have a strong ability to create clear mental images</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of cardiovascular disease on the brain?

    <p>It increases the risk of developing neurocognitive disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of keeping the mind active in older individuals?

    <p>It shows less loss of intellectual functioning in general</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the dual processing explanation for a familiar feeling?

    <p>A fully processed perceptual experience that matches a minimally processed impression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common effect of sleep deprivation on cognition?

    <p>Impaired concentration and creativity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a reason for not fully processing an original impression?

    <p>A mental distraction, such as preoccupation with other thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of sleep deprivation on daily life?

    <p>People are oftentimes unaware of their impaired concentration and judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between sleep deprivation and cognitive abilities?

    <p>Sleep deprivation impairs cognitive abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common effect of sleep deprivation on emotional well-being?

    <p>Greater irritability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the guilty knowledge test in lie detection?

    <p>To detect physiological responses to specific details of a crime scene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of fMRI brain imaging in lie detection?

    <p>It is very expensive and of questionable accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary assumption behind the use of polygraph tests?

    <p>That people who believe polygraphs are 100% accurate will show more accurate results</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more events they had never experienced after 10 weeks?

    <p>58%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the assumption behind polygraph lie detectors?

    <p>Emotional arousal is a sign of deception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between 'brain fingerprinting' and traditional polygraph tests?

    <p>The use of EEG technology to detect brain waves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential limitation of the guilty knowledge test in lie detection?

    <p>It relies on the assumption that suspects will show a physiological response to specific details of a crime scene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a problem with polygraph results?

    <p>They can be influenced by stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of innocent people are wrongly declared guilty by polygraph results?

    <p>1/3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using neuroimaging techniques in lie detection?

    <p>They are more accurate than traditional polygraph tests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can cause a person to believe a false memory is real?

    <p>Repetition of the false information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might a polygraph test be inadmissible in court?

    <p>Because it is not 100% reliable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of wrongful convictions were due to eyewitness testimony in the study by Scheck, Neufield, and Dwyer (2000)?

    <p>52%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the misinformation effect, what can influence people's memories of an event?

    <p>Both the original event and subsequent conversation about the event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a factor that can increase the likelihood of errors in eyewitness testimony?

    <p>The presence of a gun during the event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are juries strongly influenced by the confidence of eyewitnesses?

    <p>Because confidence is a poor predictor of accuracy, but juries mistakenly think it is</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the phenomenon where people incorporate misleading information presented after an event into their memory of the event?

    <p>The misinformation effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many cases out of 62 did the study by Scheck, Neufield, and Dwyer (2000) find that the crucial evidence leading to conviction came from eyewitnesses?

    <p>52</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the perceptual module in ACT-R?

    <p>To integrate subsymbolic and symbolic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the motor module in ACT-R?

    <p>To control manual and speech functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the cheater detection module in the context of cooperative behavior?

    <p>It prevents exploitation by non-cooperators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of ACT-R's modular organization?

    <p>It integrates subsymbolic and symbolic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the cognitive architecture developed by John R. Anderson in 1976?

    <p>Adaptive Control of Thought – Rational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the cognitive layer in ACT-R?

    <p>It is organized in 'chunks' of declarative memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of production rules in ACT-R?

    <p>To trigger firing of other production rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of ACT-R's architecture?

    <p>It is a hybrid architecture with symbolic and subsymbolic components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does ACT-R select which production rule to activate at any given moment?

    <p>Through a serial processing of all production rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of ACT-R's modular architecture?

    <p>It allows for the flexible and efficient use of cognitive resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the activation level of a chunk in declarative memory?

    <p>The relevance of the chunk to the current situation and context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the pattern-matching module in cognitive processing?

    <p>To control which production rule gains access to the buffer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the calculations used to determine the accessibility of information in declarative memory?

    <p>They are subsymbolic and use an artificial neural network approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the processing that occurs in the buffers and the processing that determines which information ends up in the buffers?

    <p>The processing in the buffers is symbolic, while the processing that determines which information ends up in the buffers is subsymbolic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the activation level of a chunk in declarative memory?

    <p>To influence the accessibility of the chunk in declarative memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the pattern-matching module in cognitive processing?

    <p>It uses a subsymbolic approach to determine which production rule gains access to the buffer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Acting on objects and coordinating sensory experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory?

    <p>Development of object permanence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the pre-operational stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to symbolize objects and events that are absent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main limitation of Piaget's stage model of cognitive development?

    <p>It depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it actually is</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the sensorimotor stage and the pre-operational stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to symbolize objects and events that are absent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do infants typically demonstrate an understanding of object permanence?

    <p>Around 3.5 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the visual cliff experiment in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which recurrent neural networks (RNNs) model object permanence?

    <p>Feedback connections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of object permanence in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the concrete operations stage and the formal operations stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between infants' and adults' understanding of object permanence?

    <p>Infants place more weight on spatiotemporal continuity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of the three-mountain task in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Children have difficulty taking another's perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the task that tests children's understanding of false belief?

    <p>Container Task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically pass the false belief test?

    <p>Around 3-4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of pretend play in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Ability to symbolize objects and events that are absent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which children develop an understanding of false belief?

    <p>Joint attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to understand other people's mental states?

    <p>Mindreading</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using recurrent neural networks (RNNs) in modeling object permanence?

    <p>RNNs can deal with time series and sequence data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between explicit and implicit understanding of false belief?

    <p>Implicit understanding is earlier, explicit is later</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in relation to joint attention?

    <p>Children with ASD are worse at joint attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central concept in Chomsky's theory of language acquisition that suggests that children are born with an innate ability to acquire language?

    <p>Language Acquisition Device</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key argument made by nativists regarding language acquisition?

    <p>That children are born with an innate ability to acquire language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the idea that children are born with a universal ability to acquire language, regardless of their cultural or environmental background?

    <p>Universal Grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process by which children set the parameters of their language acquisition device to fit the language they are exposed to?

    <p>Parameter Settings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is the key proponent of the nativist view of language acquisition, which suggests that children are born with an innate ability to acquire language?

    <p>Chomsky</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Chomsky, what is the underlying structure that holds across all languages?

    <p>Universal grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main argument behind the nativist view of language acquisition?

    <p>Children are born with a specialized language acquisition device</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of parameter settings in language acquisition?

    <p>To differentiate between languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the poverty of stimulus argument based on?

    <p>The idea that children are not exposed to enough linguistic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the language acquisition device in language acquisition?

    <p>To prewire humans to learn language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Fodor's and Chomsky's models of language acquisition?

    <p>Fodor's model focuses on language of thought, while Chomsky's model focuses on universal grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of the nativist approach to language acquisition?

    <p>That children are born with an innate capacity for language acquisition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary argument of the poverty of stimulus argument?

    <p>That the linguistic input children receive is too limited to explain their rapid language acquisition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in nativist theories?

    <p>To provide an innate capacity for language acquisition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of parameter settings in language acquisition?

    <p>To specify the grammatical parameters of a particular language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the connectionist approach to language acquisition?

    <p>That language acquisition can be modeled using complex networks and algorithms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of the connectionist approach to language acquisition?

    <p>That it can model complex linguistic skills without explicit linguistic rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common implication of confirmation bias in the field of psychology?

    <p>It may result in therapists forming inaccurate first impressions of patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the cheater detection module in the context of cooperative behavior?

    <p>It is a mechanism that detects and punishes cheating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of social judgments based on confirmation bias?

    <p>It can lead to inaccurate social judgments and stereotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a strategy for avoiding the pitfalls of confirmation bias?

    <p>Being open to alternative explanations and perspectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common error in problem-solving that can be related to mental set?

    <p>Functional fixedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the Rosenhan study that illustrates the concept of confirmation bias?

    <p>It highlighted the tendency to ask questions that confirm a preconceived diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using heuristics in problem-solving?

    <p>They allow one to reduce the number of operations that are tried in solving a problem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of problem-solving, what is the primary benefit of understanding the problem effectively?

    <p>It enables one to represent the problem effectively using symbols, matrices, diagrams, and visual images</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the Buddhist Monk Problem?

    <p>It is a thought experiment that involves demonstrating the existence of a spot on a path</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of exhaustive search methods in problem-solving?

    <p>They are very time-consuming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of algorithms in problem-solving?

    <p>They are less error-prone than heuristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using pronounceable letter combinations in solving an anagram?

    <p>It reduces the number of operations that are tried in solving the anagram</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why people tend to be better at reasoning with deontic conditionals?

    <p>They are able to use a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it likely that an individual who takes advantage of cooperators without reciprocating will do better than one who cooperates?

    <p>Because they are able to gain an advantage without contributing to the group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cheater detection module?

    <p>To monitor social exchanges and detect cheaters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of being able to reason with deontic conditionals?

    <p>It helps us to detect cheaters and promote cooperation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do people tend to be better at reasoning with social situations than abstract rules?

    <p>Because social situations are more concrete and easy to understand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of the existence of the cheater detection module?

    <p>That humans are capable of complex social reasoning and cooperation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying mechanism behind the female cricket's ability to locate its mate based on the song?

    <p>A hard-wired connection between sensory receptors and effector limbs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of Barbara Webb's robot cricket model?

    <p>It eliminates the need for a central controller mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the cricket's movement towards the sound?

    <p>It is a direct result of the cricket's motor control system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the implication of the cricket's ability to locate its mate?

    <p>It suggests that motor control can be decentralized and distributed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key feature of the cricket's navigation system?

    <p>It is based on a decentralized, distributed system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the cricket's phonotaxis behavior?

    <p>It suggests that motor control can be decentralized and distributed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of complex systems that makes them appear chaotic?

    <p>They are highly sensitive to tiny changes in input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a self-organizing system in the context of motor control?

    <p>The human brain issuing a command to move a hand to grasp an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where small changes in input can result in drastically different outcomes?

    <p>The Butterfly Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of feedback loops in motor control?

    <p>To fine-tune subsequent movements based on perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of dynamical systems that makes them appear unpredictable?

    <p>They are highly nonlinear and sensitive to input changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between linear and nonlinear systems?

    <p>In a linear system, changing an input by a specific amount will yield a directly proportional change in output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why stepping movements reappear at around 11 months of age?

    <p>The parameters of leg fat, gravity, and inertia have changed to facilitate stepping movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key characteristic of walking according to Thelen and Smith's research?

    <p>It is a self-organized process that emerges from the interaction of multiple parameters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of Thelen and Smith's research on the traditional explanation of the U-shaped developmental trajectory of stepping?

    <p>Stepping movements are not dependent on the development of the cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the environmental features in Thelen and Smith's research?

    <p>To manipulate the parameters of stepping movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the developmental trajectory of stepping according to Thelen and Smith's research?

    <p>It is a nonlinear process that emerges from the interaction of multiple parameters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary implication of Thelen and Smith's research on our understanding of motor control?

    <p>Motor control is a self-organized process that emerges from the interaction of multiple parameters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using IBM Watson in precision medicine?

    <p>Personalized treatment plans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using computer-controlled robots in precision surgery?

    <p>Improved surgical precision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)?

    <p>To restore motor function in paralyzed patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of neural prosthetics in restoring memory function?

    <p>To mimic normal brain function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of cochlear implants?

    <p>Restoring hearing in individuals with severe hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) with exoskeletons?

    <p>Restored motor function in paralyzed patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of neuroscientists in developing a prosthetic implant to restore normal memory function?

    <p>To mimic normal brain function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of computer-controlled robots in surgery?

    <p>Performing precision surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using precision medicine in healthcare?

    <p>Personalized treatment plans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of developing neural prosthetics?

    <p>To restore motor function in paralyzed patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) in restoring motor function?

    <p>Restored motor function in paralyzed patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using autonomous aircraft in firefighting missions?

    <p>Reducing the risk of human casualties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main application of natural language processing in professional settings?

    <p>Synthesizing notes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What advantage does AI have in diagnosing childhood illnesses compared to junior physicians?

    <p>AI outperforms junior physicians in diagnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern regarding the use of AI in customer service?

    <p>Job replacement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential hazard of using AI in medical diagnosis?

    <p>A flawed AI system may harm multiple patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the predicted impact of AI on jobs in the next 15 years?

    <p>40% of jobs will be replaced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential risk of using computer screens for extended periods?

    <p>Neurodegeneration and shortened lifespan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the capability of AI in diagnosing diabetic retinopathy?

    <p>AI can diagnose diabetic retinopathy with high degree of sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of healthcare robots in patient care?

    <p>Healthcare robots can assist frail and elderly patients out of a bed or chair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using robots in retirement homes?

    <p>Providing interaction for the elderly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of AI in certain jobs?

    <p>Inability to connect seemingly disparate threads to solve problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using AI in reading mammograms for high-risk cancer lesions?

    <p>AI reduces the number of benign surgeries by 30%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using AI in healthcare?

    <p>Enhanced diagnosis accuracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the capability of AI in diagnosing high-risk cancer lesions?

    <p>AI is equal to radiologists in diagnosing high-risk cancer lesions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern regarding the use of AI in advertising?

    <p>Tracking customer behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between human intelligence and AI?

    <p>Ability to show empathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common attribute among the different cultural smiles?

    <p>Friendliness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can we accurately predict about someone after watching them for a short time?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group tends to outperform in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET)?

    <p>Women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable difference between Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals' emotional expressions?

    <p>Neutral facial expressions are indistinguishable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable characteristic of Australian, American, and British smiles?

    <p>They differ in friendliness, dominance, and politeness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of emotional communication occurs through nonverbal channels?

    <p>90% or more</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Ekman, how many basic emotions are expressed by a unique set of muscle contractions in the face?

    <p>7</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the display rules that vary across cultures?

    <p>Display rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way in which emotions, unlike thoughts, are expressed?

    <p>Through embodied experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of Affective Computing in Human-Computer Interaction?

    <p>To recognize and respond to human emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unique feature of the facial expression of children who are born blind or both blind and deaf?

    <p>They exhibit the same emotions as sighted children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the robotic head designed to model the interaction between an infant and its caregiver?

    <p>Kismet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the eyebrow flash in Japanese culture?

    <p>It is used mainly when greeting young children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the FaceSense program at MIT?

    <p>To analyze facial expressions and head gestures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the system developed by Paul Ekman to code facial expressions?

    <p>Facial Action Coding System (FACS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary finding of the study by Nalini Ambady on physician's malpractice?

    <p>Research participants can accurately predict which doctors would later get sued based on tone of voice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Kismet, the robotic head designed to model the interaction between an infant and its caregiver?

    <p>It can process visual and auditory information to detect affective information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of computer programs that recognize human emotion from spoken auditory information?

    <p>Developing virtual therapists and chatbot therapists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the accuracy of computer programs in recognizing human emotions from spoken auditory information?

    <p>79%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a challenge in creating simulations of human-like interactions?

    <p>Dealing with people's sensitivity to subtle deviations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a training tool for autism spectrum disorders?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential application of computer programs that recognize human emotion from spoken auditory information?

    <p>Evaluating customer satisfaction in call centers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the FEELIX GROWING consortium?

    <p>To develop robots that can learn and adapt to human behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature of the robot 'Nao' enables it to analyze customers' emotions?

    <p>Cameras in its face to analyze facial expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of experts are involved in the construction of robots like 'Nao'?

    <p>A large team of experts, including psychologists, linguists, computer programmers, etc.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of robots like 'Nao' in a hospital setting?

    <p>To provide caregiving and companionship to patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using robots like 'Nao' in a hospital setting?

    <p>To provide emotional support and comfort to patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way that robots like 'Nao' are programmed to interact with humans?

    <p>Through machine learning and artificial intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Developmental Psychology

    • Research has found that children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized
      • Object permanence: infants understand that objects continue to exist when hidden, even from a young age (around 3.5 months)
      • Baillargeon's drawbridge experiment: infants show surprise when an object seems to just disappear, demonstrating an understanding of object permanence
      • Infants place more weight on spatiotemporal continuity than on featural continuity
    • Modeling object permanence: recurrent neural networks (RNNs) can be used to model object permanence
      • RNNs can learn to predict the reappearance of occluded objects over longer periods of time
    • Development of self-recognition
      • Rouge test: children around 18-24 months old will respond to a red mark on their nose in a mirror
      • Only other animals capable of passing the rouge test are other apes, dolphins, orcas, elephants, magpies, and cleaner wrasse
    • Mindreading
      • Ability to understand other people's mental states
      • Allows us to make sense of other people and coordinate behavior with theirs
      • Roots of mindreading in early childhood lie in pretend play
      • Pretend play involves metarepresentation - use of a representation to represent another representation
    • False Belief Task
      • Tests whether children can abstract away from their own knowledge to understand that someone else can have different (and mistaken) beliefs about the world
      • Children do not typically pass the false belief test until around age 4
    • Shared attention mechanism (SAM)
      • Occurs when infants look at objects because they see that another person is looking at that object
      • Requires infant to embed representations - to represent that an agent is representing someone else's representation
      • Makes possible a range of coordinated social behaviors and collaborative activities

    Emotions and Artificial Intelligence

    • Expression of emotions
      • 90% or more of emotional communication occurs through nonverbal channels (facial expression, gesture, voice)
      • Ekman identified 7 basic emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness, sadness, and contempt
      • Each emotion is expressed by a unique set of muscle contractions in the face
    • Reading emotions
      • Our brains are amazing emotion detectors
      • We can accurately predict how others evaluate us based on a quick glance at someone's photo
      • Women tend to outperform men on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET)
    • Identifying microexpressions
      • Ekman identified 46 distinct muscular movements (action units) in the face
      • Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
    • Emotions and artificial intelligence: affective computing
      • Goals: create computers and robots with the ability to recognize emotions in people
      • Create machines that can express emotions
      • Examples: Kismet project, FaceSense program, FEELIX GROWING consortium### Imagery and Ambiguous Figures
    • People have difficulty identifying parts of a whole if they haven't included them in their original verbal description of the whole
    • Some ambiguous figures are difficult to reinterpret in a mental image
    • Majority of research supports the analog viewpoint, but some people on some tasks use a propositional code

    Marr's Model of Visual Processing

    • Marr developed a theory of visual processing that was built on a hierarchy of different levels for studying cognition
    • System takes a complex pattern of unstructured stimuli in the visual field and interprets them into representations that can serve as input to more complex cognitive functions, such as object recognition
    • Three stages of processing:
      1. Image projected onto the retina is analyzed in terms of intensity of areas of light and dark
      2. Features in the raw primal sketch that are similar in size and orientation get grouped
      3. Image is then transformed into a 3-D sketch, with axes of symmetry and elongation linking object parts

    Subliminal Perception and Priming

    • Subliminal perception: messages presented below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness may influence behavior
    • Priming: unconscious activation of particular associations in memory
    • Research on scrambled-sentence test and guilty knowledge test

    Lie Detection

    • Polygraph lie detectors: measure several physiological responses accompanying emotional arousal
    • Problems with polygraph: arousal associated with lying is no different from arousal caused by other stressful situations
    • Alternative methods of lie detection: guilty knowledge test, brain fingerprinting, and fMRI brain imaging

    Individual Differences in Response to Sensory Stimulation

    • Introverts vs. extraverts: introverts salivate more to lemon juice, tend to retain elevated heart rate longer after exposure to noxious odors, and are more sensitive to pain
    • Synesthesia: stimulation of one modality leads to perceptual experience in another
    • Two theories of synesthesia: 1) brain architecture of synesthetes is equipped with more connections between neurons, causing the usual modularity to break down; 2) "feed-backward" connections that carry information from high-level multisensory areas of the brain back to single sense areas are not properly inhibited

    Learning and Cognitive Styles

    • Visualizers vs. verbalizers: neural correlates of visual vs. verbal cognitive styles
    • Aphantasia: inability to visualize, may be congenital or acquired
    • Teaching math without words: using visual feedback to teach math concepts

    Learning without Reinforcement

    • Cognitive maps: learning can occur even when no reinforcement is received and no response is made
    • Overjustification effect: rewards can undermine motivation
    • Role of motivation in learning: studies of expert tutors found that they avoid telling a child they are wrong, even lying to do so### Successful Aging and Brain Regions
    • In successful agers, the regions of the brain regulating emotions are thicker, specifically the midcingulate cortex and anterior insula.
    • Engaging in activities that require hard work and cause mental fatigue, such as grappling with a math problem, can increase the chances of remaining sharp into old age.

    Memory Processing and Forgetting

    • Memory is an information processing system involving three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
    • Forgetting can occur due to problems in any of these stages.
    • Encoding failure: information never enters long-term memory, often due to lack of attention.
    • Storage decay: information stored in long-term memory gradually fades, but this process is not as severe as commonly thought.
      • Research has shown that people can remember a significant amount of information even after 50 years.

    Brain Structures and Memory

    • Two key structures involved in processing and storing new explicit memories are:
      • Frontal lobes: responsible for recalling information and holding it in working memory.
      • Hippocampus: acts as a "save" button for explicit memories, temporarily holding information before it is stored elsewhere in the brain.

    Memory Disorders and Dissociation

    • Dissociation: when brain damage affects two behaviors very differently, suggesting they are produced by different processes.
    • Examples of dissociation:
      • Clive Wearing, who suffered damage to his hippocampus and could not form new explicit memories, but retained his musical abilities.
      • People with full temporal lobe amnesia, who cannot form new explicit memories but can form new implicit memories.
    • The hippocampus is central to the formation of explicit memories, and damage to it can lead to difficulties in forming new memories.

    Alzheimer's Disease

    • A disease that occurs in the latter part of life, characterized by deterioration of memory, reasoning, and language abilities.
    • Associated with the loss of neurons in cortical and sub-cortical regions, leading to a decline in cognitive abilities.
    • Risk factors for Alzheimer's include:
      • Genetic components
      • Higher risk of disease in those who have previously suffered a stroke or head trauma
      • Conditions associated with cardiovascular disease
      • Low levels of vitamin D and certain B vitamins
      • Exposure to lead and toxic substances

    Sleep Deprivation and Cognitive Function

    • Sleep deprivation can cause irritability, fatigue, impaired concentration, and creativity, as well as increased vulnerability to accidents.
    • Surprisingly, people are often unaware of the impact of sleep deprivation on their concentration, judgment, and other cognitive functions.

    ACT-R: A Hybrid Cognitive Architecture

    • A cognitive architecture that incorporates both symbolic and subsymbolic information processing.
    • Consists of a modular organization with a perceptual-motor layer, a cognitive layer, and a subsymbolic base.
    • The cognitive layer is organized into "chunks" of declarative memory, which are encoded as production rules.
    • The subsymbolic base uses artificial neural networks to model the accessibility of information in declarative memory.

    Cognitive Development

    • Development of depth perception: infants who have had experience crawling develop wariness of heights.
    • Piagetian stages of cognitive development:
      • Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years): children act on objects, coordinate sensory experiences, and form schemas.
      • Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): children develop symbolic thinking and engage in pretend play.
      • Concrete operations stage (7-11 years): children develop higher-order schemas and understand reversible consequences of actions.
      • Formal operations stage (over 11 years): children develop ability to engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning.

    Language and Thought

    • Models of language learning:
      • Nativist views: language acquisition is facilitated by an innate language acquisition device.
      • Connectionist models: language learning is simulated using artificial neural networks.
      • Bayesian language learning: language learning is modeled using Bayesian statistical methods.
    • The relationship between language and thought is complex, and there is evidence for both sides of the debate.

    Problem Solving and Heuristics

    • Mental set: the tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has been successful in the past.
    • Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.
    • Heuristics: rule-of-thumb strategies that allow one to reduce the number of operations tried in solving a problem.
    • Strategies for improving problem solving:
      • Understand the problem
      • Represent the problem effectively using symbols, matrices, diagrams, and visual images

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    Description

    Test your understanding of cognitive psychology concepts, including imagery and spatial reasoning. Evaluate the role of analog and propositional viewpoints in problem-solving. Assess how individuals process information and make judgments about spatial relationships.

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