Cognitive Psychology Exam 1

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of long-term memory (LTM)?

  • Sensory (correct)
  • Semantic
  • Episodic
  • Procedural

What is the name of the phenomenon where the first and last items in a list are more likely to be remembered than the items in the middle?

  • Spacing Effect
  • Encoding Specificity
  • Retrieval Practice Effect
  • Serial Position Effect (correct)

Which of the following is NOT a way to improve memory encoding?

  • Levels of Processing
  • Retrieval Cues (correct)
  • Spacing Effect
  • Elaborative Encoding

What is the name of the brain structure that plays a crucial role in memory consolidation and is often damaged in cases of anterograde amnesia?

<p>Hippocampus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a type of perceptual bias that can lead to distorted judgments?

<p>Hindsight Bias (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a Gestalt heuristic?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the hippocampus?

<p>Formation of new memories (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the filter and the attenuation models of attention?

<p>The filter model suggests that unattended information is completely blocked, while the attenuation model suggests that it is weakened. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of working memory?

<p>Sensory register (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Stroop effect?

<p>The difficulty in naming the color of ink of a word when the word itself is the name of a different color. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between bottom-up and top-down processing in perception?

<p>Bottom-up processing is driven by sensory information, while top-down processing is driven by expectations and prior knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concept behind unconscious perception?

<p>The ability to perceive information that is not consciously perceived. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the cocktail party effect demonstrate selective attention?

<p>It shows that we are more likely to attend to conversations that are relevant to us. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies the concept of "state-dependent learning"?

<p>A student who studies for an exam while listening to upbeat music remembers the material better when they listen to the same music during the exam. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "recency effect" in memory refers to the tendency to:

<p>Remember the last few items in a list better than the items in the middle. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT directly related to the process of encoding information into long-term memory?

<p>Hindsight bias (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "propaganda effect" in memory refers to:

<p>The increased likelihood of believing information that has been repeatedly presented, even if it is false. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a "declarative" type of long-term memory?

<p>Remembering your first birthday party. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher is associated with the theory of functionalism?

<p>James (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is commonly used to study selective attention?

<p>Dichotic listening (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main structure in the brain associated with processing emotions?

<p>Amygdala (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the main focus of cognitive psychology?

<p>Mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of neuroplasticity?

<p>The brain adapting after an injury (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a situation where a person fails to notice changes in their environment?

<p>Change blindness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'implicit priming' refer to?

<p>An unconscious enhancement of memory retrieval (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is a key component of the modal model of memory?

<p>Sensory memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a type of long-term memory?

<p>Sensory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'mere exposure effect' is a phenomenon related to which type of long-term memory?

<p>Implicit (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor contributing to the 'primacy effect' in memory?

<p>Encoding specificity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a 'retrieval cue'?

<p>The smell of freshly baked cookies (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of 'state-dependent learning'?

<p>Learning that occurs in a specific state of mind is more easily retrieved in that same state (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "Cocktail Party Effect" demonstrates which concept?

<p>Selective attention (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of the Modal Model of memory?

<p>Working Memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attention, what does the 'shadowing' task involve?

<p>Paying attention to only one stimulus while ignoring other stimuli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of working memory as proposed by Baddeley?

<p>Episodic buffer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the phenomenon where individuals fail to notice changes in their environment even when they are directly looking at it?

<p>Change blindness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is critically involved in learning and memory?

<p>Glutamate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method of studying the brain?

<p>Cognitive Psychology (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between episodic and semantic memory?

<p>Episodic memory is for personal experiences, while semantic memory is for general knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'retrieval practice effect' suggest about memory?

<p>Retrieving information from memory improves its retention. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of nondeclarative memory?

<p>Semantic memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

<p>Retrograde amnesia involves forgetting past events, while anterograde amnesia involves difficulty forming new memories. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following perceptual biases describes the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of an event after it has already occurred?

<p>Hindsight Bias (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a Gestalt heuristic?

<p>Figure-Ground (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a method of studying the brain that does not involve manipulating the brain directly?

<p>Electroencephalography (EEG) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Treisman's Attenuation Model of attention, what happens to unattended information?

<p>It is weakened, but still processed to some extent. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's model of working memory?

<p>Sensory Memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the phenomenon of 'change blindness' demonstrate?

<p>The limited capacity of our attention. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a cause of the Cognitive Revolution?

<p>The rise of behaviorism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of unconscious perception?

<p>Being influenced by a subliminal message flashed briefly on a screen. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the amygdala?

<p>Processing and regulating emotions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of nondeclarative long-term memory?

<p>Episodic memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the hippocampus in relation to memory?

<p>Encoding of new memories into long-term storage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the concept of "state-dependent learning"?

<p>Learning that is influenced by the physiological or psychological state of the learner at the time of encoding and retrieval (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following involves the process of deliberately repeating information to keep it in short-term memory?

<p>Rehearsal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the inability to recognize faces, even those of familiar people?

<p>Prosopagnosia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which Gestalt heuristic describes the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete?

<p>Closure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following models of attention suggests that unattended information is completely blocked from further processing?

<p>Filter Model (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a method of studying the brain that involves measuring electrical activity in the brain?

<p>Electroencephalography (EEG) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a cause of the Cognitive Revolution?

<p>The rise of computer science (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "primacy effect" in memory is best described as the tendency to:

<p>Remember items at the beginning of a list better than the items at the end. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "spacing effect" in memory suggests that:

<p>Spreading out learning sessions over time leads to better memory retention. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a perceptual bias that describes the tendency to underestimate the impact of future events on our current judgments?

<p>Hindsight Bias (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a situation where a person fails to notice changes in their environment even when they are directly looking at it?

<p>Change blindness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cause of the Cognitive Revolution?

<p>The rise of behaviorism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of long-term memory is associated with the learning of motor skills, like riding a bike?

<p>Procedural memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'spacing effect' in memory?

<p>The tendency to remember information better when it is studied in multiple short sessions spread out over time. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these structures is NOT directly involved in memory processes?

<p>Thalamus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a part of the Modal Model of memory?

<p>Working Memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on Treisman's Attenuation Model, what happens to unattended information?

<p>It is weakened but can still be processed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario is an example of change blindness?

<p>A magician performing a sleight of hand trick (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios illustrates unconscious perception?

<p>You are able to hear your name in a crowded room even though you weren't paying attention (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a "retrieval cue" that can help you remember information?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the "spacing effect" in memory?

<p>The tendency to remember information better when it is studied in spaced intervals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between "retrograde" and "anterograde" amnesia?

<p>Retrograde amnesia involves the inability to retrieve old memories, while anterograde amnesia involves the inability to form new memories. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of perceptual bias?

<p>Retrieval bias (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes declarative memory from nondeclarative memory?

<p>Declarative memory involves conscious recall of facts and events. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of retrieval practice?

<p>Taking practice tests on the material covered. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon demonstrates the effectiveness of spaced encoding?

<p>Reviewing study material in short sessions over time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of encoding specificity in memory retrieval?

<p>It facilitates better recall of information when the context is similar to when it was learned. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is primarily affected in anterograde amnesia?

<p>The ability to form new long-term memories after the onset of amnesia. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the hippocampus in cognition?

<p>Involved in memory consolidation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of behaviorism as established by Watson and Skinner?

<p>Emphasis on observable behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is commonly associated with studying selective attention in research?

<p>Shadowing tasks (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining principle of the information processing approach in cognitive psychology?

<p>Understanding cognitive processes through metaphorical models (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of neuronal communication is primarily involved in neurotransmitter release?

<p>Presynaptic cell (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key concept behind Gestalt heuristics in perception?

<p>The whole is greater than the sum of its parts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an effect of the divided attention phenomenon?

<p>Decreased ability to focus on one task (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'neuroplasticity' refer to?

<p>The brain's ability to change and adapt over time (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cognitive psychology

The scientific study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and reasoning.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

Action potentials

The electrical impulses that travel along neurons to convey information.

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Perception

The process of interpreting sensory information from the environment.

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Selective attention

The process of focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

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Inattentional blindness

The failure to notice an unexpected stimulus when focused on another task.

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Working memory

A system for temporarily holding and manipulating information for cognitive tasks.

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Long-term memory (LTM)

A type of memory that stores information over extended periods, categorized into declarative and nondeclarative.

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Declarative memory

A type of long-term memory involved in the storage of facts and events, further divided into episodic and semantic memory.

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Episodic memory

A subtype of declarative memory that involves the recollection of experiences and specific events in time.

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Retrieval cues

Stimuli or hints that help in the recall of information from memory, often facilitating memory retrieval.

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State-dependent learning

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is enhanced when an individual is in the same state or environment as when the memory was formed.

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Intentional learning

Learning that is deliberate, with a clear goal to remember information.

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Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those in the middle.

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Procedural memory

A type of nondeclarative memory related to knowing how to perform tasks and skills.

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Retrieval practice effect

Improved memory retrieval resulting from actively recalling information.

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Double dissociation

A neuropsychological phenomenon where two related mental functions are shown to function independently.

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Structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structure of the mind.

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Functionalism

A school of psychology that emphasized the function of mental processes in adapting to the environment.

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Behaviorism

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and dismisses mental processes.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

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Cognitive revolution

A shift in psychology that began in the 1950s, emphasizing internal mental processes.

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Bottom-up processing

A perception process that begins with sensory input and builds up to the final perception.

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Implicit priming

An unconscious activation of a memory or response by exposure to a related stimulus.

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Divided attention

The ability to process multiple sources of information simultaneously.

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Priming

An implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus.

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Information processing approach

A perspective in cognitive psychology that compares the mind to a computer, focusing on how information is processed.

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Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

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Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision making and problem solving.

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Change blindness

A phenomenon where a person fails to notice changes in their visual field.

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Attentional models

Theories that explain how the mind selects and processes information, including filter and attenuation models.

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Automaticity

A state in which a task can be performed without conscious thought due to practice and familiarity.

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Intentional vs incidental learning

Intentional learning is deliberate with a goal, while incidental learning occurs without intention.

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Recall vs recognition

Recall is retrieving information from memory, while recognition involves identifying previously learned information when presented with it.

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Types of LTM

Long-term memory includes declarative (facts/events) and nondeclarative (skills/habits) types.

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Neurons structure

Neurons consist of parts including the cell body, dendrites, and axon.

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Hippocampus function

Involved in forming and retrieving memories.

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Selective attention methods

Techniques like shadowing and dichotic listening to study focused attention.

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Modal Model

A framework describing memory processes: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

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Feature integration theory

The theory explaining how we perceive complex stimuli through focused attention on features.

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Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items better than the middle items.

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Types of long-term memory

Long-term memory consists of declarative (facts/events) and nondeclarative (skills/habits).

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Hippocampus role

A brain region crucial for forming and retrieving memories.

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Phineas Gage

A case study demonstrating the influence of brain damage on behavior and personality.

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Top-down processing

A perceptual process where our expectations and prior knowledge influence perception.

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Encoding specificity

The principle that retrieval is improved when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval.

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Levels of processing

The theory that deeper levels of analysis result in more durable memory retention.

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Neuronal communication

The process by which neurons transmit signals through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.

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Four lobes of the brain

The brain is divided into frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, each with specific functions.

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Face perception

The process of recognizing and interpreting faces, critical for social interaction, can be impaired in conditions like prosopagnosia.

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Methods of Cognitive Research

Techniques used to study mental processes, including experiments and observations.

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Presynaptic vs Postsynaptic Cell

Presynaptic cells send signals, while postsynaptic cells receive them at the synapse.

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Hebbian Learning

A theory that proposes an increase in the synaptic strength arises from the repeated and persistent stimulation of one neuron by another.

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Synesthesia

A condition where one sensory experience involuntarily involves another, like seeing colors when hearing music.

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Modal Model Components

Key components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, describing how information flows.

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Hippocampus

A brain region crucial for forming and retrieving memories.

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Prosopagnosia

A condition characterized by an inability to recognize faces, often referred to as face blindness.

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Study Notes

Cognitive Psychology Exam 1

  • Cognitive Psychology: Study of mental processes like thinking, learning, and memory.

  • Greek Philosophers: Early thinkers about cognitive processes.

  • Early Theorists:

    • Wundt: Developed structuralism, analyzing basic mental processes.
    • Ebbinghaus: Studied memory, known for memory experiments.
    • James: Developed functionalism, focused on how the mind functions in real-world situations.
    • Watson/Skinner: Behaviorism, focuses on observable behavior, not internal mental states.
    • Information Processing Approach: Views the mind as a computer processing information in stages. Stages include input, processing, and output. Info is taken, processed, and outputted.
    • Cognitive Revolution: Shift in psychology toward studying mental processes, influenced by developments in linguistics and language. A reaction against behaviorism.
    • Different Methods of Cognitive Research: Various research designs including behavioral experiments, neuroimaging techniques (e.g., fMRI), neuropsychological examinations, psychological tests, and case studies. Measuring reaction times, neurological examinations, behavioral research, and neuroimaging are methods to determine how learning occurs. Neuropsychological tests and case studies are crucial.

  • Neurons: Basic units of the nervous system; includes cell body, dendrites, and axon. Sensory receptors and synapses. Function includes reacting to stimuli.

  • Sensory Receptors: Receive external stimuli and transmit information to the brain.

  • Synapse: Junction between nerve cells, allowing communication. Includes presynaptic and postsynaptic components. Structure and function are analyzed, focusing on how information is relayed.

  • Neuronal Communication: Information transmitted between neurons through action potentials and neurotransmitters. The direction of travel, and presynaptic and postsynaptic cells.

  • Action Potentials: Electrical signals that travel down neurons.

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that carry signals across synapses.

  • Brain Structures and Cognition: Regions of the brain. Four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). Other areas, like the hippocampus and amygdala. Functions of these areas are studied. Brain structures are analyzed based on cognitive processing and associated functions.

  • Methods of Studying the Brain: Techniques to study brain function, including behavioral studies, neuroscience, and neuropsychological examinations. Studying the effects of brain damage, animal models, and medical evaluations. Individual case studies, like Phineas Gage, are important. Studying brain function involves studying patients who have experienced brain damage, measuring cognitive performance in patients. Neuroimaging tests like fMRI and PET scans. Various behavioral and experimental methods are used to assess cognitive function.

  • Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

    • Bottom-up, Top-down: Two types of perceptual processing; bottom-up starts with raw data, top-down uses prior knowledge and expectations.
    • Human vs. Computer Perception: Comparison of how humans and computers perceive the world.
    • Perceptual Constancies: Mental abilities to maintain perception of objects despite changes in viewing conditions (size, shape, and color).

Attention

  • How to Measure Attention: Methods to assess attentional processes (e.g., shadowing tasks, Dichotic listening, cocktail party effect).

  • Selective Attention: Ability to focus on one stimulus and ignore others. Dichotic listening and shadowing tasks are used to study this ability.

  • Models of Attention: Different theoretical frameworks (e.g., filter, attenuation model, feature integration model), focusing on these specifically. Key models include the filter model, and attenuation model, and feature integration model. Factors affecting attention are studied including task load. Models of attention include studies on factors that affect attention.

  • Automaticity: Unconscious and effortless processing of familiar tasks.

  • Divided Attention: Ability to process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously. Affected by task difficulty, practice, and individual differences (including factors like task load). An example in studies like the gamers study of the effect of task load.

  • Inattentional Blindness: Failing to perceive a stimulus when attention is focused elsewhere.

  • Feature Integration Theory: Explanation of how we combine sensory features into unified perceptions.

  • ADHD, Unilateral Neglect, Simultanagnosia: Conditions related to attentional deficits.

Memory

  • Memory as a search process (Google): Context effects on memory (and how this affects our ability to retrieve and search memory). Contextual factors affect how we search, and retrieve memories.
  • Encoding Specificity: Retrieval cues present during learning enhance retrieval.
  • State-dependent learning: Memory enhanced in the same state during encoding and retrieval.
  • Consolidation (Synaptic vs. Systems): Process of strengthening memory traces over time, including different synaptic and systems-level changes. The distinctions between synaptic and systems-level consolidation.
  • Hippocampus: Brain region vital for memory storage and encoding.
  • Medial temporal lobe: Crucial for memory processes, including consolidation.
  • Amnesia (Retrograde vs. Anterograde): Conditions with memory impairments (retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve memories before a specific trauma or injury while anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after a specific trauma or injury.)
  • Sleep: Role of sleep stages in memory processes, including consolidation and reconsolidation.
  • Reconsolidation: Reactivation and strengthening of memories when retrieved.
  • Perceptual Biases: Cognitive shortcuts influencing perception and memory (e.g., anchoring bias, hindsight bias, negativity bias, decoy effect, bias blind spot). Types of memory include Episodic, Semantic, Procedural, and Implicit memories.
  • Long-term memory vs. short-term memory: Difference in duration and capacity, distinguishing between STM and LTM capacities, noting how these are studied and measured.
  • Encoding: Transforming sensory information into a storable format; Types include elaborative and levels of processing encoding. Retrieval: Accessing information from memory, and the key role for retrieval cues.

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