Questions and Answers
Izard (1977) isolated how many emotions? Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt, shame, and guilt.
10
What are some positive elements of emotions that can contribute to happiness?
Close friendships, satisfying marriage, engaging work and leisure, living close to a beach, religiousity, sleeping well, exercise.
Which factor does not relate to happiness?
What are the three phases people pass through when stress occurs, according to the General Adaptation Syndrome?
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Men who are feeling extreme hopelessness are at greater risk for heart attacks and early death.
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Match the following terms with their descriptions:
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Define 'ingroup' as mentioned in the content.
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Explain 'mere exposure effect' based on the content.
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What is an example of extrinsic motivation?
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According to the drive reduction theory of motivation, physiological needs create an aroused tension state.
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What is the original definition of IQ?
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______ is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.
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What does standardization in contemporary tests involve?
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Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that everyone has all 8 intelligences in equal proportions.
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The _concluded that intelligence was inherited.
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Match each term with its description:
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What are the 4 basic perspectives of personality?
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What are the psychosexual stages of development according to Freud's theory?
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Repression is a defense mechanism according to Freud.
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Match the following defense mechanisms with their descriptions:
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What is the ultimate psychological need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs related to personality?
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What is cognition?
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What is the function of the midbrain/limbic system?
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What is functional fixedness?
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Who is known for his theory of cognitive development in children?
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What is a schema?
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What is the process of language development connected to?
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What is a network of associations?
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What is an emotional schema?
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What is the role of awareness in changing core beliefs?
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What is the relationship between depression and schemas?
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What is language?
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What is the critical period of language development?
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What is bilingualism?
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What is intelligence?
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What are the clusters of personality disorders?
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Which personality disorder is the most common among the Cluster B disorders?
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What is the primary symptom of Borderline Personality Disorder?
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Subjective Well-Being (SWB) includes life satisfaction, positive emotions, and negative emotions.
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Subjective Well-Being (SWB) reflects an individual's overall assessment of their life and emotional experiences, contributing significantly to better __________ and longevity.
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What physiological impacts are associated with Subjective Well-Being (SWB)?
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Why is establishing causality between SWB and health challenging?
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How do positive emotions contribute to health beyond the absence of negative emotions?
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How is SWB linked to healthier behaviors?
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What areas should future research focus on regarding SWB and health?
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Define trait perspective in contemporary research.
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Which of the following is a characteristic of Emotional Stability?
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Match the following personality traits with their descriptions:
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Reciprocal determinism emphasizes the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.
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What is Individualism in the context of personality psychology?
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The Beck Depression Inventory is a (21-item test) that assesses the presence and degree of depression.
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What is the Werther Effect also known as?
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What are the characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?
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What does OCD stand for, and what are its main characteristics?
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Schizophrenia is characterized by inappropriate emotions and actions.
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What is a key characteristic of personality disorders?
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Study Notes
Cognition and Brain Function
- Cognition refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating, primarily occurring in the cerebral cortex.
- The midbrain/limbic system adds emotions, complex motives, and increased memory abilities, controlled by the amygdala.
- The brain stem function controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival, similar to pre-historic, animalistic responses.
Functional Fixedness and Problem-Solving
- Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem-solving.
- This concept is illustrated by the example of House MD, who is able to think outside the box without functional fixedness.
Cognitive Development and Schemas
- Jean Piaget is known for his theory of cognitive development in children, which involves mental schemas, core beliefs, assimilation, and accommodation.
- Schemas are developed through the process of assimilation and accommodation, where new information is incorporated into existing knowledge structures.
- Core beliefs, influenced by CBT and Jean Piaget's ideas, are crucial in shaping our understanding of the world.
Language Development and Network of Associations
- Language development involves the process of assimilation and accommodation, making it more difficult to learn new languages with age.
- A network of associations in long-term memory stores clusters of information, such as the word "dog" being associated with "cat," "barking," and "fetching."
Emotional Schemas and Trauma
- Emotional schemas can be influenced by traumatic events, which can create strong, lasting schemas.
- People without trauma may require multiple events to develop a schema.
Changing Core Beliefs
- Changing core beliefs involves awareness, assimilation, and accommodation, and can be done through cognitive restructuring.
- This process can be challenging, especially in cases of depression, where negative schemas are reinforced.
Language and Bilingualism
- Language includes spoken, written, or gestured words and their combination to communicate meaning.
- Bilingualism can enhance metalinguistic skills but may decrease efficiency in memory tasks.
- Early introduction to bilingualism is beneficial for metalinguistic thinking, and environment plays a crucial role in language learning.
Intelligence and IQ
- Intelligence refers to the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
- The concept of IQ, originally defined by Stanford-Binet, measures the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.
- Contemporary tests, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), assess intelligence with standardized, culturally relevant tests.
Multiple Intelligences and Environmental Influence
- Howard Gardner's theory proposes eight intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
- Intelligence is influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment), with the ability to modify IQ scores through an enriched environment.
- Environmental factors, such as education and socioeconomic status, can impact intelligence and IQ scores.
Social Psychology and Attribution
- Social psychology studies how we think about and relate to one another.
- The fundamental attribution error (FAE) occurs when we overestimate dispositional contributions and underestimate situational variables in attribution.
- Conformity and obedience can influence our behavior, as demonstrated by Asch's conformity experiment.### Milgram's Obedience Experiment
- Conducted at Yale University
- Participants were asked to electrocute another person in a separate room if they answered questions incorrectly, due to an authority figure
- 65% of participants completed the experiment, despite feeling nervous, due to the authority figure
- 35% of participants resisted, attributing their actions to internal personality traits
Social Facilitation
- Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others, occurring with simple or well-learned tasks
- Examples include sports, home team advantage, and studying with others
Groupthink
- Mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives
- A powerful force, leading individuals to prioritize harmony over making an informed decision
Deindividualization
- Occurs when individuals prioritize group harmony over personal opinions, leading to unanimous decisions
- Can be dangerous, as it overrides individual critical thinking
Social Relations and Roles
- Ingroup: "us" people with whom one shares a common identity
- Outgroup: "them" those perceived as different or apart from one's group
- Examples include the Zimbardo experiment, where participants were given specific roles in a simulated prison environment
Mere Exposure Effect
- The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
- Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture, leading to a drastic decrease in racial attitudes and attraction
Bystander Effect
- The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
- Due to the diffusion of responsibility, but can be countered by individuals who go against social pressure
Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
- Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Humanistic Approach to Motivation
- Emphasizes personal choice and an inborn need to fulfill potential and self-actualize
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
- Physiological Needs
- Safety and Security
- Relationships, Love, and Affection
- Self-Esteem
- Self-Actualization
- Motivation increases as needs are met, but decreases as needs are met below the line of esteem needs
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
- Focuses on thinking and the interpretation of events
- Intrinsic motivation is influenced by cognitive processes
- Attribution Theory:
- Internal: blames oneself for failures, takes personal responsibility
- External: blames external factors for failures
- Stability: expectation that things will change or stay the same
- Controllable/Uncontrollable: emotional evaluation of events
- Responsibility: internal or external locus of control
Sociocultural Approach to Motivation
- Examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior
- Emphasizes participation in communities of practice, identification with group norms, and peer pressure as motivators
Biological Approach to Motivation
- Drive-Reduction Theory:
- Need (e.g. water, food) -> drive (hunger, thirst) -> drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)
- Homeostasis: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
- Yerkes-Dodson Law of Motivation:
- Optimal arousal level for peak performance
- Too much or too little arousal leads to impaired performance
Emotion
- Physiological Reactions:
- Feeling hot, getting stomach ache, heart rate
- Behavioral Reactions:
- Behaving in a certain way or lack of, (cursing, driving faster)
- Conscious Experience:
- Thought of things (someone cuts me off "how dare you")
- Experienced Emotion:
- The way emotion is expressed, which is culturally universal
- Evolutionary advantage to having those expressions
Positive Element of Emotion: Happiness
- Things we have control over
- Having close friendships or a satisfying marriage
- Having work and leisure that engage our skills
- Religiousity is linked with happiness
- Sleeping well and exercise are also linked with happiness
Happiness Does Not Relate to:
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Age
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Gender
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Education level
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Parenthood
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Attractiveness### Stress and Health
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The body's resistance to stress can only last so long before exhaustion sets in
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There are three phases of stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
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During exam periods, there is a rapid increase in health-related issues
Health Psychology
- A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine
- Focuses on mind-body illness and psychophysical illness
- Men who experience extreme hopelessness are at greater risk for heart attacks and early death
Religion and Health
- There is a clear correlation between religion and longer lives
- More likely to engage in healthy behaviors, such as less smoking and drinking
- Social support from faith, communities, and marriage leads to better health outcomes
- Positive emotions, such as believing in a higher power, lead to less anxiety, stress, and immune system suppression
Mindfulness
- A research-based tool to help with stress
- Focuses on bringing down body stress and releasing tension
- Objective is to reduce stress and anxiety
Personality Theories
Psychoanalytic Perspective
- Freud's theory of personality: childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality
- The unconscious mind contains unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories
- Personality structure consists of the ID, Superego, and Ego
ID
- Strives to satisfy basic drives
- Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
Superego
- Presents internalized ideals
- Provides standards for judgment (conscience) and for future aspirations
Ego
- Mediates among the demands of the ID, Superego, and reality
- Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the ID's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
Psychosexual Stages of Development
- Oral (0-18 months): pleasure centers on the mouth
- Anal (18-36 months): pleasure focuses on the bowel and bladder elimination
- Phallic (3-6 years): pleasure zone is the genitals
- Latency (6 to puberty): dormant sexual feelings
- Genital (puberty on): maturation of sexual interests
Defense Mechanisms
- Repression: banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
- Reaction Formation: switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites
- Projection: disguises one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
- Rationalization: offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's action
- Displacement: shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
Humanistic Perspective
- Focuses on self-actualization and the motivation to fulfill one's potential
- Abraham Maslow studied productive and healthy people
- Self-actualization is the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved
Trait Perspective
- Focuses on characteristics of behavior, such as emotional stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
- The Big 5 personalities: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness
Social-Cognitive Perspective
- Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context
- Reciprocal determinism: the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors
Individualism/Collectivism
- Individualism emphasizes independence, individual goals, and personal fulfillment
- Collectivism values interdependence, group goals, social responsibilities, and relationships
- Morality in individualism is self-based, defined by personal principles, whereas in collectivism, it is duty-based, defined by social networks
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Description
This quiz covers all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating, mainly in the cerebral cortex.