Cognition and Mental Activities
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Questions and Answers

Izard (1977) isolated how many emotions? Most of them are present in infancy, except for contempt, shame, and guilt.

10

What are some positive elements of emotions that can contribute to happiness?

Close friendships, satisfying marriage, engaging work and leisure, living close to a beach, religiousity, sleeping well, exercise.

Which factor does not relate to happiness?

  • Age
  • Attractiveness
  • Parenthood (correct)
  • Education level

    • What are the three phases people pass through when stress occurs, according to the General Adaptation Syndrome?

    <p>Alarm reaction, Resistance, Exhaustion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Men who are feeling extreme hopelessness are at greater risk for heart attacks and early death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Health psychology = Psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine Mindfulness = Objective is to bring down body stress and release tension Theodessy = Belief correlating with longer lives Psychophysical illness = Behavior related to stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define 'ingroup' as mentioned in the content.

    <p>People with whom one shares a common identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain 'mere exposure effect' based on the content.

    <p>The phenomenon where repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of extrinsic motivation?

    <p>Performing a behavior to receive rewards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the drive reduction theory of motivation, physiological needs create an aroused tension state.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the original definition of IQ?

    <p>The ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.

    <p>Motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does standardization in contemporary tests involve?

    <p>All of the above.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences suggests that everyone has all 8 intelligences in equal proportions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _concluded that intelligence was inherited.

    <p>aristocrat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each term with its description:

    <p>Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) = Failure to consider situational variables while making an attribution Conformity = Influence resulting from accepting others' opinions Authority = Power to give orders and enforce obedience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the 4 basic perspectives of personality?

    <p>Psychoanalytic, trait, humanistic, social-cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the psychosexual stages of development according to Freud's theory?

    <p>Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Repression is a defense mechanism according to Freud.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following defense mechanisms with their descriptions:

    <p>Reaction formation = Expressing feelings opposite to true feelings Projection = Attributing threatening impulses to others Rationalization = Self-justifying explanations for actions Displacement = Redirecting impulses to a safer target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ultimate psychological need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs related to personality?

    <p>Self actualization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is cognition?

    <p>all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the midbrain/limbic system?

    <p>Adds emotions, complex motives, increased memory abilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is functional fixedness?

    <p>the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known for his theory of cognitive development in children?

    <p>Jean Piaget</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a schema?

    <p>a mental framework for organizing and understanding information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of language development connected to?

    <p>accommodation and assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a network of associations?

    <p>clusters of information stored in long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an emotional schema?

    <p>a cluster of information stored in long-term memory related to emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of awareness in changing core beliefs?

    <p>work against awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between depression and schemas?

    <p>Depression often leads to staying in bed, avoiding activities, and reinforcing negative schemas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is language?

    <p>spoken, written, or gestured words and the way they are combined to communicate meaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the critical period of language development?

    <p>The age range during which language learning is easier.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is bilingualism?

    <p>The ability to speak two or more languages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is intelligence?

    <p>The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the clusters of personality disorders?

    <p>Cluster A (Odd, eccentric), Cluster B (Dramatic, Erratic), Cluster C (Anxious, Fearful)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality disorder is the most common among the Cluster B disorders?

    <p>Borderline Personality Disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary symptom of Borderline Personality Disorder?

    <p>Frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, unstable interpersonal relationships, unstable sense of self, self-damaging, impulsive behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Subjective Well-Being (SWB) includes life satisfaction, positive emotions, and negative emotions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Subjective Well-Being (SWB) reflects an individual's overall assessment of their life and emotional experiences, contributing significantly to better __________ and longevity.

    <p>health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological impacts are associated with Subjective Well-Being (SWB)?

    <p>stronger immune responses, lower inflammation, healthier heart rates, reduced levels of stress hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is establishing causality between SWB and health challenging?

    <p>potential influence of unmeasured variables, such as genetics, pre-existing health conditions, and lifestyle factors, as well as the complex interactions between mental and physical health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do positive emotions contribute to health beyond the absence of negative emotions?

    <p>reducing stress, improving cardiovascular function, boosting the immune system, enhancing overall health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is SWB linked to healthier behaviors?

    <p>encourages engagement in health-promoting behaviors like physical activity, balanced nutrition, and avoidance of harmful habits like smoking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What areas should future research focus on regarding SWB and health?

    <p>uncovering specific mechanisms through which SWB influences health, determining the most beneficial aspects of SWB, developing targeted interventions, examining the role of SWB in various health conditions and demographics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define trait perspective in contemporary research.

    <p>A characteristic pattern of behavior; A disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Emotional Stability?

    <p>Calm versus anxious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following personality traits with their descriptions:

    <p>Extraversion = Outgoing and sociable versus reserved Agreeableness = Soft-hearted versus ruthless Conscientiousness = Organized versus disorganized Openness = Imaginative versus practical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reciprocal determinism emphasizes the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Individualism in the context of personality psychology?

    <p>Individualism emphasizes independence, focusing on personal goals and uniqueness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Beck Depression Inventory is a (21-item test) that assesses the presence and degree of depression.

    <p>multiple-choice format</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Werther Effect also known as?

    <p>Copycat Suicide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

    <p>Intense dread episodes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does OCD stand for, and what are its main characteristics?

    <p>Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder; unwanted repetitive thoughts and actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Schizophrenia is characterized by inappropriate emotions and actions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of personality disorders?

    <p>Unstable positive sense of self</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cognition and Brain Function

    • Cognition refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating, primarily occurring in the cerebral cortex.
    • The midbrain/limbic system adds emotions, complex motives, and increased memory abilities, controlled by the amygdala.
    • The brain stem function controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival, similar to pre-historic, animalistic responses.

    Functional Fixedness and Problem-Solving

    • Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem-solving.
    • This concept is illustrated by the example of House MD, who is able to think outside the box without functional fixedness.

    Cognitive Development and Schemas

    • Jean Piaget is known for his theory of cognitive development in children, which involves mental schemas, core beliefs, assimilation, and accommodation.
    • Schemas are developed through the process of assimilation and accommodation, where new information is incorporated into existing knowledge structures.
    • Core beliefs, influenced by CBT and Jean Piaget's ideas, are crucial in shaping our understanding of the world.

    Language Development and Network of Associations

    • Language development involves the process of assimilation and accommodation, making it more difficult to learn new languages with age.
    • A network of associations in long-term memory stores clusters of information, such as the word "dog" being associated with "cat," "barking," and "fetching."

    Emotional Schemas and Trauma

    • Emotional schemas can be influenced by traumatic events, which can create strong, lasting schemas.
    • People without trauma may require multiple events to develop a schema.

    Changing Core Beliefs

    • Changing core beliefs involves awareness, assimilation, and accommodation, and can be done through cognitive restructuring.
    • This process can be challenging, especially in cases of depression, where negative schemas are reinforced.

    Language and Bilingualism

    • Language includes spoken, written, or gestured words and their combination to communicate meaning.
    • Bilingualism can enhance metalinguistic skills but may decrease efficiency in memory tasks.
    • Early introduction to bilingualism is beneficial for metalinguistic thinking, and environment plays a crucial role in language learning.

    Intelligence and IQ

    • Intelligence refers to the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
    • The concept of IQ, originally defined by Stanford-Binet, measures the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100.
    • Contemporary tests, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), assess intelligence with standardized, culturally relevant tests.

    Multiple Intelligences and Environmental Influence

    • Howard Gardner's theory proposes eight intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
    • Intelligence is influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment), with the ability to modify IQ scores through an enriched environment.
    • Environmental factors, such as education and socioeconomic status, can impact intelligence and IQ scores.

    Social Psychology and Attribution

    • Social psychology studies how we think about and relate to one another.
    • The fundamental attribution error (FAE) occurs when we overestimate dispositional contributions and underestimate situational variables in attribution.
    • Conformity and obedience can influence our behavior, as demonstrated by Asch's conformity experiment.### Milgram's Obedience Experiment
    • Conducted at Yale University
    • Participants were asked to electrocute another person in a separate room if they answered questions incorrectly, due to an authority figure
    • 65% of participants completed the experiment, despite feeling nervous, due to the authority figure
    • 35% of participants resisted, attributing their actions to internal personality traits

    Social Facilitation

    • Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others, occurring with simple or well-learned tasks
    • Examples include sports, home team advantage, and studying with others

    Groupthink

    • Mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives
    • A powerful force, leading individuals to prioritize harmony over making an informed decision

    Deindividualization

    • Occurs when individuals prioritize group harmony over personal opinions, leading to unanimous decisions
    • Can be dangerous, as it overrides individual critical thinking

    Social Relations and Roles

    • Ingroup: "us" people with whom one shares a common identity
    • Outgroup: "them" those perceived as different or apart from one's group
    • Examples include the Zimbardo experiment, where participants were given specific roles in a simulated prison environment

    Mere Exposure Effect

    • The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
    • Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture, leading to a drastic decrease in racial attitudes and attraction

    Bystander Effect

    • The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
    • Due to the diffusion of responsibility, but can be countered by individuals who go against social pressure

    Motivation

    • Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
    • Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

    Humanistic Approach to Motivation

    • Emphasizes personal choice and an inborn need to fulfill potential and self-actualize
    • Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
      • Physiological Needs
      • Safety and Security
      • Relationships, Love, and Affection
      • Self-Esteem
      • Self-Actualization
    • Motivation increases as needs are met, but decreases as needs are met below the line of esteem needs

    Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

    • Focuses on thinking and the interpretation of events
    • Intrinsic motivation is influenced by cognitive processes
    • Attribution Theory:
      • Internal: blames oneself for failures, takes personal responsibility
      • External: blames external factors for failures
      • Stability: expectation that things will change or stay the same
      • Controllable/Uncontrollable: emotional evaluation of events
      • Responsibility: internal or external locus of control

    Sociocultural Approach to Motivation

    • Examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior
    • Emphasizes participation in communities of practice, identification with group norms, and peer pressure as motivators

    Biological Approach to Motivation

    • Drive-Reduction Theory:
      • Need (e.g. water, food) -> drive (hunger, thirst) -> drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)
      • Homeostasis: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
    • Yerkes-Dodson Law of Motivation:
      • Optimal arousal level for peak performance
      • Too much or too little arousal leads to impaired performance

    Emotion

    • Physiological Reactions:
      • Feeling hot, getting stomach ache, heart rate
    • Behavioral Reactions:
      • Behaving in a certain way or lack of, (cursing, driving faster)
    • Conscious Experience:
      • Thought of things (someone cuts me off "how dare you")
    • Experienced Emotion:
      • The way emotion is expressed, which is culturally universal
      • Evolutionary advantage to having those expressions

    Positive Element of Emotion: Happiness

    • Things we have control over
    • Having close friendships or a satisfying marriage
    • Having work and leisure that engage our skills
    • Religiousity is linked with happiness
    • Sleeping well and exercise are also linked with happiness

    Happiness Does Not Relate to:

    • Age

    • Gender

    • Education level

    • Parenthood

    • Attractiveness### Stress and Health

    • The body's resistance to stress can only last so long before exhaustion sets in

    • There are three phases of stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

    • During exam periods, there is a rapid increase in health-related issues

    Health Psychology

    • A subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine
    • Focuses on mind-body illness and psychophysical illness
    • Men who experience extreme hopelessness are at greater risk for heart attacks and early death

    Religion and Health

    • There is a clear correlation between religion and longer lives
    • More likely to engage in healthy behaviors, such as less smoking and drinking
    • Social support from faith, communities, and marriage leads to better health outcomes
    • Positive emotions, such as believing in a higher power, lead to less anxiety, stress, and immune system suppression

    Mindfulness

    • A research-based tool to help with stress
    • Focuses on bringing down body stress and releasing tension
    • Objective is to reduce stress and anxiety

    Personality Theories

    Psychoanalytic Perspective

    • Freud's theory of personality: childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality
    • The unconscious mind contains unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories
    • Personality structure consists of the ID, Superego, and Ego

    ID

    • Strives to satisfy basic drives
    • Operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

    Superego

    • Presents internalized ideals
    • Provides standards for judgment (conscience) and for future aspirations

    Ego

    • Mediates among the demands of the ID, Superego, and reality
    • Operates on the reality principle, satisfying the ID's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

    Psychosexual Stages of Development

    • Oral (0-18 months): pleasure centers on the mouth
    • Anal (18-36 months): pleasure focuses on the bowel and bladder elimination
    • Phallic (3-6 years): pleasure zone is the genitals
    • Latency (6 to puberty): dormant sexual feelings
    • Genital (puberty on): maturation of sexual interests

    Defense Mechanisms

    • Repression: banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
    • Reaction Formation: switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites
    • Projection: disguises one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
    • Rationalization: offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's action
    • Displacement: shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

    Humanistic Perspective

    • Focuses on self-actualization and the motivation to fulfill one's potential
    • Abraham Maslow studied productive and healthy people
    • Self-actualization is the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved

    Trait Perspective

    • Focuses on characteristics of behavior, such as emotional stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
    • The Big 5 personalities: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness

    Social-Cognitive Perspective

    • Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context
    • Reciprocal determinism: the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

    Individualism/Collectivism

    • Individualism emphasizes independence, individual goals, and personal fulfillment
    • Collectivism values interdependence, group goals, social responsibilities, and relationships
    • Morality in individualism is self-based, defined by personal principles, whereas in collectivism, it is duty-based, defined by social networks

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    This quiz covers all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating, mainly in the cerebral cortex.

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