Cognition and Memory Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What describes the primacy effect?

  • The practice of processing information through System 2.
  • The inclination to seek confirmation of beliefs.
  • The tendency to remember information presented last.
  • The tendency to regard first-presented information as more significant. (correct)

    • Which statement best exemplifies confirmation bias?

  • Ignoring information that contradicts existing beliefs. (correct)
  • Evaluating evidence with complete objectivity.
  • Seeking out diverse viewpoints on an issue.
  • Making decisions based solely on statistical data.

    • In which scenario would System 1 processing likely be employed?

  • Solving a complex math problem.
  • Making a quick gut decision in a familiar situation. (correct)
  • Analyzing detailed research data.
  • Planning a long-term project.

    • What is a heuristic?

    <p>A mental shortcut based on previous experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the principle of mastery in motivation aim to achieve?

    <p>To understand and predict behavior of people and events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary obstacle to reconciliation between conflicting groups?

    <p>The differing needs of victims and perpetrators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the apology-forgiveness cycle primarily facilitate?

    <p>Intergroup conflict resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of intergroup cooperation, what is a challenge faced by nations during COP conventions?

    <p>The recognition of conflicting national interests alongside collective goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can leaders influence group identities?

    <p>By selecting relevant categories to shape group boundaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the dual identity model propose?

    <p>Group identities are integrated into a larger, inclusive identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of attitude?

    <p>Cognitive, affective, behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a way attitudes are formed?

    <p>Inferred experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'valence' refer to in the context of attitudes?

    <p>How positive or negative an attitude is</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of attitude measurement allows individuals to provide a framework for reporting their attitudes?

    <p>Direct measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an indirect attitude measurement?

    <p>Galvanic skin response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of attitudes, what is 'social desirability'?

    <p>The tendency to conform to social expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological study area focuses on measuring attitudes?

    <p>Psychometrics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the accessibility of attitudes?

    <p>It gauges the ease of recalling an attitude.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the bottom-up approach in impression formation focus on?

    <p>Characteristics of the perceived target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits is specifically associated with the agency dimension?

    <p>Tenacious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are communal traits processed more quickly than agency traits in social judgments?

    <p>They provide an evolutionary advantage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the stereotype content model?

    <p>Socially shared beliefs about social groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of impression formation, which model focuses on forming impressions based on configurations of traits?

    <p>Configural model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait would be considered peripheral in the configural model of impression formation?

    <p>Messiness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Big two model, what are the two main dimensions people use to describe others?

    <p>Intellectual good/bad and social good/bad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do impressions formed through the top-down approach primarily originate?

    <p>From past experiences and settings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of social comparison involves making assessments with individuals perceived as inferior?

    <p>Downward comparison</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of social identity theory?

    <p>The influence of social groups on self-concept</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can contribute to the justification of discrimination against a group?

    <p>Cognitive dissonance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle explains our tendency to favor our own social group over others?

    <p>In-group favoritism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait is NOT a component of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)?

    <p>Social Norm Compliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the differences individuals emphasize between their own group and other groups?

    <p>Inter-group differentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible outcome of the frustration-aggression hypothesis when an individual's goals are blocked?

    <p>Aggression towards convenient scapegoats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method can be used to reduce cognitive dissonance in the context of discrimination?

    <p>Dehumanizing the target group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of social, practical, and technological constraints on self-evaluation?

    <p>They create biased self-evaluations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does social dominance orientation (SDO) advocate for?

    <p>Hierarchical relationships of power among social groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does relative salience affect self-concept?

    <p>It influences the importance of social versus personal identity based on context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of dehumanization denies emotional responsiveness to the discriminated individuals?

    <p>Mechanistic dehumanization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that individuals categorize themselves to achieve both group distinction and positive self-evaluation?

    <p>Optimal distinctiveness principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a contributing factor to increased prejudice and discrimination during social unrest?

    <p>External forces blocking goal pursuits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics can define a social group?

    <p>Both assigned and chosen characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the content, which of the following best describes the impact of stereotyping through institutional intervention?

    <p>It reinforces prejudices and can escalate discrimination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Fundamental Concepts

    • Cognition is the mental process of understanding information.
    • Attention is the conscious focus on specific things, which can be selective or automatic.
    • Selective attention is influenced by cognitive effort to note irrelevant information.
    • Salience is that which attracts attention, as it is vivid and distinct.
    • Short-term memory has a limited duration (18-30 seconds) and limited capacity.
    • Short-term memory is perceptually organized.
    • Baddeley's model describes working memory with sensory input, phonological, visual-spatial, and episodic components that are processed by the central executive, making them ready for long-term storage.
    • Magical number 7 ± 2 refers to the capacity of short-term memory, which can hold approximately seven chunks of information.
    • Long-term memory has a limitless capacity and is organized semantically (by association).
    • Long-term memory is an associative network, where items are stored as nodes connected by links.

    Basic Info Processing Principles

    • Accessibility relates to how easily concepts are retrieved from long-term memory when processing new information. Factors determining accessibility include recency, frequency, and goals.
    • Conservatism in this context refers to the tendency to maintain existing views, opinions, and attitudes.
    • This is because cognitive resources are limited, prompting us to update knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes only when necessary.

    Attitudes Formation and Change

    • Attitude is a set of beliefs, feelings, and behaviours towards an object.
    • Attitudes are formed through direct experience, observing others, or being exposed to information from mass media or groups.
    • Attitudes are based on three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioural (past experiences and future intentions).
    • Attitudes have different degrees of scrutiny based on cognitive effort.
    • System 1 (superficial processing) involves intuitive and heuristic-based mechanisms for dealing with information.
    • System 2 (deep processing) uses logical and systematic assessments.
    • Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that aid in complex task completion, often based on experience in analogous situations and often produce sufficient solutions.
    • Attitudes can be influenced by internal factors, such as deliberation and cognitive dissonance reduction, or external factors, like exposure to new information and social influence.

    Social Cognition

    • Impression formation is a process of creating mental images of other people based on factors like observable behaviors, appearance, and communications.
    • Impression formation is conducted from limited data.
    • Impressions are influenced by both bottom-up (characteristics of the individual) and top-down (mental schema of the perceiver) influences.
    • Stereotypes are socially shared beliefs about the attributes of a social group.
    • Stereotype content model analyzes stereotypes based on a combination of competence and warmth.

    Attribution and Biases

    • Attribution is the process of explaining causes for events and behaviours.
    • Dispositional attributions refer to personal factors, while situational attributions relate to environmental factors.
    • Correspondence bias is the tendency to overemphasize dispositional attributions instead of situational factors.
    • Actor-observer bias entails attributing one's own behavior to situational factors and others' behavior to dispositional factors.
    • Self-serving bias involves attributing positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors.
    • Fundamental attribution error is a tendency to overestimate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational influences in explaining others' behavior.

    Self and Identity

    • Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as an object in the world.
    • Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to successfully execute tasks to achieve goals.
    • Self-esteem is the evaluation of oneself, often derived from social comparison.
    • Self-discrepancy theory suggests that people experience distress when there is a mismatch between their actual self and their ideal or ought selves.
    • Regulatory focus theory explains how promotion and prevention orientations motivate different types of self-regulation.

    Reconcilation

    • Reconciliation is often hindered by the differing needs of each group.
    • Victims need empowerment and perpetrators need their actions validated.
    • Forgiveness can be helpful.
    • Cooperation can result from shared interests.
    • Reframing (reworking) identities can help promote group unity

    Social Influence

    • Social norms are rules and standards of behaviour.
    • Norms can be descriptive (describing the frequency of behaviour) or injunctive (regarding approval or disapproval).
    • Social facilitation is the enhancement of performance caused by the presence of others. -Social loafing is reduced effort in group tasks when responsibility is diffused.
    • Social norms influence us even when those individuals are not present.

    Intergroup Conflict

    • Realistic conflict theory suggests that intergroup conflict arises from competition for scarce resources.
    • Relative deprivation involves the perception of being treated less favorably than others or seeing one's group as having lower standing.
    • Social categorization and stereotypes can perpetuate conflict.
    • Contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact may reduce prejudice.
    • Intractable conflict can hinder reconciliation efforts that address differing needs of respective groups.

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    Description

    Explore the fundamental concepts of cognition and memory in this quiz. Learn about attention, short-term memory, and long-term memory, alongside models such as Baddeley's working memory. Test your understanding of how we perceive, store, and retrieve information.

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