Cognition and Memory Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What describes the primacy effect?

  • The practice of processing information through System 2.
  • The inclination to seek confirmation of beliefs.
  • The tendency to remember information presented last.
  • The tendency to regard first-presented information as more significant. (correct)

    • Which statement best exemplifies confirmation bias?

  • Ignoring information that contradicts existing beliefs. (correct)
  • Evaluating evidence with complete objectivity.
  • Seeking out diverse viewpoints on an issue.
  • Making decisions based solely on statistical data.

    • In which scenario would System 1 processing likely be employed?

  • Solving a complex math problem.
  • Making a quick gut decision in a familiar situation. (correct)
  • Analyzing detailed research data.
  • Planning a long-term project.

    • What is a heuristic?

    <p>A mental shortcut based on previous experiences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the principle of mastery in motivation aim to achieve?

    <p>To understand and predict behavior of people and events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary obstacle to reconciliation between conflicting groups?

    <p>The differing needs of victims and perpetrators (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the apology-forgiveness cycle primarily facilitate?

    <p>Intergroup conflict resolution (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of intergroup cooperation, what is a challenge faced by nations during COP conventions?

    <p>The recognition of conflicting national interests alongside collective goals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can leaders influence group identities?

    <p>By selecting relevant categories to shape group boundaries (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the dual identity model propose?

    <p>Group identities are integrated into a larger, inclusive identity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of attitude?

    <p>Cognitive, affective, behavioral (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a way attitudes are formed?

    <p>Inferred experience (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'valence' refer to in the context of attitudes?

    <p>How positive or negative an attitude is (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of attitude measurement allows individuals to provide a framework for reporting their attitudes?

    <p>Direct measures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an indirect attitude measurement?

    <p>Galvanic skin response (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of attitudes, what is 'social desirability'?

    <p>The tendency to conform to social expectations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological study area focuses on measuring attitudes?

    <p>Psychometrics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the accessibility of attitudes?

    <p>It gauges the ease of recalling an attitude. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the bottom-up approach in impression formation focus on?

    <p>Characteristics of the perceived target (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits is specifically associated with the agency dimension?

    <p>Tenacious (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are communal traits processed more quickly than agency traits in social judgments?

    <p>They provide an evolutionary advantage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the stereotype content model?

    <p>Socially shared beliefs about social groups (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of impression formation, which model focuses on forming impressions based on configurations of traits?

    <p>Configural model (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait would be considered peripheral in the configural model of impression formation?

    <p>Messiness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Big two model, what are the two main dimensions people use to describe others?

    <p>Intellectual good/bad and social good/bad (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do impressions formed through the top-down approach primarily originate?

    <p>From past experiences and settings (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of social comparison involves making assessments with individuals perceived as inferior?

    <p>Downward comparison (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of social identity theory?

    <p>The influence of social groups on self-concept (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can contribute to the justification of discrimination against a group?

    <p>Cognitive dissonance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle explains our tendency to favor our own social group over others?

    <p>In-group favoritism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait is NOT a component of right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)?

    <p>Social Norm Compliance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the differences individuals emphasize between their own group and other groups?

    <p>Inter-group differentiation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible outcome of the frustration-aggression hypothesis when an individual's goals are blocked?

    <p>Aggression towards convenient scapegoats (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method can be used to reduce cognitive dissonance in the context of discrimination?

    <p>Dehumanizing the target group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of social, practical, and technological constraints on self-evaluation?

    <p>They create biased self-evaluations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does social dominance orientation (SDO) advocate for?

    <p>Hierarchical relationships of power among social groups (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does relative salience affect self-concept?

    <p>It influences the importance of social versus personal identity based on context. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of dehumanization denies emotional responsiveness to the discriminated individuals?

    <p>Mechanistic dehumanization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that individuals categorize themselves to achieve both group distinction and positive self-evaluation?

    <p>Optimal distinctiveness principle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a contributing factor to increased prejudice and discrimination during social unrest?

    <p>External forces blocking goal pursuits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics can define a social group?

    <p>Both assigned and chosen characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the content, which of the following best describes the impact of stereotyping through institutional intervention?

    <p>It reinforces prejudices and can escalate discrimination. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Primacy Effect

    The tendency to give more weight to information presented first, compared to information presented later.

    Confirmation Bias

    The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms our existing beliefs, while ignoring or downplaying contradictory evidence.

    Heuristics

    Mental shortcuts that allow us to make quick decisions based on previous experiences and simple rules. They are often 'good enough' solutions, but not always optimal.

    System 1 (Thinking)

    A mental process that operates automatically, intuitively, and quickly. System 1 handles simple tasks and background information.

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    System 2 (Thinking)

    A process that involves slow, deliberate, logical reasoning, and is used for more complex tasks and salient information.

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    Social Desirability

    The tendency to present oneself in a socially acceptable way, conforming to perceived expectations of others.

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    Attitude

    A thought or idea influencing beliefs, emotions, and behaviors towards an object.

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    Value or Valence

    How positive or negative an attitude is towards an object.

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    Attitude Strength

    The strength of an attitude, ranging from mild to extreme.

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    Accessibility

    How easily an attitude is recalled, influenced by factors such as recency, frequency, and goals.

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    Attitude Object

    Any significant object, person, group, event, or concept that can be evaluated.

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    Psychometrics

    The study of measuring attitudes using scientific methods.

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    Indirect or Implicit Attitude Measures

    Measures based on observing psychological or behavioral reactions to understand attitudes indirectly.

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    Impression Formation

    The process of forming an overall impression of someone based on limited information like their physical appearance, behavior, and communication.

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    Algebraic Model

    A model of impression formation where impressions are based on the sum of individual traits, each with assigned positive or negative values. Example: Smart (+1) + Annoying (-2) + Friendly (+1) = Overall Impression: Positive.

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    Configural Model

    A model of impression formation where impressions are formed based on configurations of central and peripheral traits. For example, someone perceived as 'smart' and 'messy' might be seen as inherently less trustworthy compared to someone perceived as 'smart' and 'tidy'.

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    Central Traits

    Traits that carry more weight in forming an overall impression. For example, being 'warm' vs. 'cold' often strongly influence overall impressions.

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    Big Two Model

    A model of impression formation that proposes two major dimensions for evaluating others: 'communion' (getting along, social good) and 'agency' (getting ahead, intellectual good).

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    Stereotype

    A socially shared belief and evaluation about members of a specific social group.

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    Communion

    A dimension of the 'Big Two Model' that focuses on an individuals collaborative, friendly, and caring traits. It's about getting along with others and being part of a group.

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    Agency

    A dimension of the 'Big Two Model' that focuses on an individual's competence, ambition, and assertiveness. It's about getting ahead and achieving goals.

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    Reconciliation

    The process by which conflicting groups come to terms with their shared history and find ways to move forward together. This often involves acknowledging past wrongs, seeking justice for victims, and building trust between groups.

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    Different needs in Reconciliation

    The need for victims to regain a sense of power and control over their lives after experiencing harm, while perpetrators need to acknowledge their wrongdoing and regain their moral standing.

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    Apology-forgiveness cycle

    A powerful tool in conflict resolution where an apology is offered for past wrongs and forgiveness is given by the wronged party. This cycle can help break the cycle of anger and resentment.

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    Intergroup Cooperation

    A method of conflict resolution that focuses on shared goals and cooperation between groups to achieve those goals. This can be seen in international efforts to address climate change.

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    Reworking Group Identities

    The process of changing how a group sees itself, its identity. This can be influenced by leaders who choose which aspects of the group are emphasized and which are de-emphasized.

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    Downward Social Comparison

    The tendency to compare oneself to others who are slightly inferior in a particular area, leading to a boost in self-esteem.

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    Upward Social Comparison

    The tendency to compare oneself to others who are slightly superior, leading to a moderate increase in self-esteem but also a potential for feeling inadequate.

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    Social Identity

    The portion of one's self-concept that is derived from being a member of social groups. It helps us understand who we are in relation to others.

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    Optimal Distinctiveness Principle

    The tendency to categorize ourselves into groups that provide sufficient distinctiveness and positive self-evaluation. It helps us feel unique while still belonging.

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    In-Group Favouritism

    The tendency to favor members of our own group (in-group) over members of other groups (out-group). This can stem from the need to maintain a positive social identity.

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    Meta-Contrast Principle

    The process of minimizing differences within a group (intra-group) and maximizing differences between groups (inter-group). This helps reinforce social identity.

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    Group Status Function

    The status of a group can influence the self-evaluation of its members. High-status groups typically lead to a positive self-esteem.

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    Social Categorisation

    The tendency to focus on the similarities within a group and minimize individual differences. This further reinforces our sense of belonging.

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    Prejudice

    A pre-existing negative attitude towards a certain group of people, often based on stereotypes and generalizations.

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    Discrimination

    Treating people differently based on their group membership, often resulting in unfair outcomes.

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    Stereotyping

    A simplified, often negative, image or belief about a group of people, which can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

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    Cognitive Dissonance

    The unpleasant feeling of having conflicting beliefs and actions. For example, if someone holds prejudiced beliefs but doesn't want to seem prejudiced, they may feel cognitive dissonance.

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    Dehumanization

    A psychological defense mechanism where someone denies the humanity of a target group to justify discrimination against them. This can involve portraying them as less than human or even animalistic.

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    Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

    A psychological theory suggesting prejudice and discrimination can increase during periods of social and economic unrest. People seeking to vent their frustration may target outgroups as scapegoats.

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    Authoritarianism

    A personality trait characterized by adherence to conventional values, obedience to authority, and aggression towards those perceived as deviant. People with high levels of authoritarianism tend to be prejudiced.

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    Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)

    A belief system that endorses hierarchical social structures and the dominance of certain groups over others. Individuals with high SDO tend to view inequality as natural and desirable.

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    Study Notes

    Fundamental Concepts

    • Cognition is the mental process of understanding information.
    • Attention is the conscious focus on specific things, which can be selective or automatic.
    • Selective attention is influenced by cognitive effort to note irrelevant information.
    • Salience is that which attracts attention, as it is vivid and distinct.
    • Short-term memory has a limited duration (18-30 seconds) and limited capacity.
    • Short-term memory is perceptually organized.
    • Baddeley's model describes working memory with sensory input, phonological, visual-spatial, and episodic components that are processed by the central executive, making them ready for long-term storage.
    • Magical number 7 ± 2 refers to the capacity of short-term memory, which can hold approximately seven chunks of information.
    • Long-term memory has a limitless capacity and is organized semantically (by association).
    • Long-term memory is an associative network, where items are stored as nodes connected by links.

    Basic Info Processing Principles

    • Accessibility relates to how easily concepts are retrieved from long-term memory when processing new information. Factors determining accessibility include recency, frequency, and goals.
    • Conservatism in this context refers to the tendency to maintain existing views, opinions, and attitudes.
    • This is because cognitive resources are limited, prompting us to update knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes only when necessary.

    Attitudes Formation and Change

    • Attitude is a set of beliefs, feelings, and behaviours towards an object.
    • Attitudes are formed through direct experience, observing others, or being exposed to information from mass media or groups.
    • Attitudes are based on three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioural (past experiences and future intentions).
    • Attitudes have different degrees of scrutiny based on cognitive effort.
    • System 1 (superficial processing) involves intuitive and heuristic-based mechanisms for dealing with information.
    • System 2 (deep processing) uses logical and systematic assessments.
    • Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that aid in complex task completion, often based on experience in analogous situations and often produce sufficient solutions.
    • Attitudes can be influenced by internal factors, such as deliberation and cognitive dissonance reduction, or external factors, like exposure to new information and social influence.

    Social Cognition

    • Impression formation is a process of creating mental images of other people based on factors like observable behaviors, appearance, and communications.
    • Impression formation is conducted from limited data.
    • Impressions are influenced by both bottom-up (characteristics of the individual) and top-down (mental schema of the perceiver) influences.
    • Stereotypes are socially shared beliefs about the attributes of a social group.
    • Stereotype content model analyzes stereotypes based on a combination of competence and warmth.

    Attribution and Biases

    • Attribution is the process of explaining causes for events and behaviours.
    • Dispositional attributions refer to personal factors, while situational attributions relate to environmental factors.
    • Correspondence bias is the tendency to overemphasize dispositional attributions instead of situational factors.
    • Actor-observer bias entails attributing one's own behavior to situational factors and others' behavior to dispositional factors.
    • Self-serving bias involves attributing positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors.
    • Fundamental attribution error is a tendency to overestimate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational influences in explaining others' behavior.

    Self and Identity

    • Self-consciousness is the awareness of oneself as an object in the world.
    • Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to successfully execute tasks to achieve goals.
    • Self-esteem is the evaluation of oneself, often derived from social comparison.
    • Self-discrepancy theory suggests that people experience distress when there is a mismatch between their actual self and their ideal or ought selves.
    • Regulatory focus theory explains how promotion and prevention orientations motivate different types of self-regulation.

    Reconcilation

    • Reconciliation is often hindered by the differing needs of each group.
    • Victims need empowerment and perpetrators need their actions validated.
    • Forgiveness can be helpful.
    • Cooperation can result from shared interests.
    • Reframing (reworking) identities can help promote group unity

    Social Influence

    • Social norms are rules and standards of behaviour.
    • Norms can be descriptive (describing the frequency of behaviour) or injunctive (regarding approval or disapproval).
    • Social facilitation is the enhancement of performance caused by the presence of others. -Social loafing is reduced effort in group tasks when responsibility is diffused.
    • Social norms influence us even when those individuals are not present.

    Intergroup Conflict

    • Realistic conflict theory suggests that intergroup conflict arises from competition for scarce resources.
    • Relative deprivation involves the perception of being treated less favorably than others or seeing one's group as having lower standing.
    • Social categorization and stereotypes can perpetuate conflict.
    • Contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact may reduce prejudice.
    • Intractable conflict can hinder reconciliation efforts that address differing needs of respective groups.

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    Explore the fundamental concepts of cognition and memory in this quiz. Learn about attention, short-term memory, and long-term memory, alongside models such as Baddeley's working memory. Test your understanding of how we perceive, store, and retrieve information.

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