CM Civilisation G.B: Science and Education

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Questions and Answers

What caused a greater religious crisis than Darwinism in England?

  • The Huxley-Wilberforce debate
  • The publication of Survival of the Fittest
  • The rejection of divine goodness
  • Essays and Reviews (correct)

Darwin's loss of faith was primarily due to his acceptance of Christianity.

False (B)

What narrative was partly used by figures like Huxley to professionalize science?

The conflict narrative between science and religion

The British Empire accounted for _____ of the surface of the earth and _____ of the population of the world in 1897.

<p>1/5, 1/4</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was considered a marker of civilization used by the British Empire?

<p>Clothing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following key dates with their corresponding events:

<p>1807 = Abolition of the slave trade 1833 = Abolition of slavery 1860 = Huxley-Wilberforce debate</p> Signup and view all the answers

Geology only began challenging biblical interpretations after Darwin's theory of evolution.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the belief in the duty of the developed civilizations to impose development on underdeveloped ones?

<p>Civilizing Mission</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is considered the founder of ethnology?

<p>James Cowles Prichard (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Ethnological Society of London operated from 1843 to 1871.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the motto of the Aboriginal Protection Society?

<p>ab uno sanguine</p> Signup and view all the answers

James Hunt rejected Darwin's theory of _____ and believed in fixed racial types.

<p>evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following individuals with their beliefs or contributions:

<p>James Cowles Prichard = Founder of ethnology Robert Knox = Introduced the first modern theory of race Thomas Huxley = First president of the Anthropological Institute James Hunt = Polygenist who rejected evolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the British Association for the Advancement of Science initially refuse in 1844?

<p>To create a section on ethnology (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Biological determinism provided complex explanations favoring the loser's perspective.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of racial science from the 1870s to 1900?

<p>To justify the empire and hierarchy of peoples.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant impact did technological developments have on Victorian society?

<p>Enhanced national pride in scientific and technological advances (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The idea of evolution was widely accepted among educated British men prior to 1859.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who formulated the watchmaker analogy to explain the existence of God?

<p>William Paley</p> Signup and view all the answers

Erasmus Darwin is known for his belief that all living creatures came from a common __________.

<p>ancestor</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scientific figure is associated with the first book on evolution, 'Philosophie Zoologique'?

<p>Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the individual with their contribution to the idea of evolution:

<p>Charles Darwin = Origins (1859) Erasmus Darwin = Common ancestry Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck = Philosophie Zoologique William Paley = Watchmaker analogy</p> Signup and view all the answers

The relationship between science and religion was seen as conflicting during the Victorian period.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the view of science in the early 19th century according to the president of the Royal Society?

<p>A kind of hobby followed by a certain class of people (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major historical event in 1789 influenced the political climate in Britain, contributing to fears of revolution?

<p>The French Revolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

Science was viewed as a daunting subject that was hard to understand for the Victorian middle classes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one reason for the movement to professionalize science during the late 19th century?

<p>Public convinced of the national importance of research for material prosperity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Royal Society was primarily regarded as a __________ club during the 19th century.

<p>gentlemen's</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following individuals was mentioned as a leader in the amateur tradition of British science?

<p>Darwin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the year with its corresponding historical fact regarding British science:

<p>1860-1900 = Movement for the Endowment of Research 1774 = Joseph Priestly's quote about philosophy 1820 = Presidents lament about hobbyism in science 1876 = British association meeting on amateur tradition</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Victorian middle classes were unified in their perception of religion and politics.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did gentlemen amateurs of science seek, as mentioned in the late 19th century?

<p>Living wages</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary ideology regarding women's roles in the first half of the 19th century?

<p>Women are best suited for domestic roles and responsibilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Marriage was seen as the only respectable career option for women during the 19th century.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What notable work did Mary Wollstonecraft author?

<p>A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</p> Signup and view all the answers

The legal principle known as ______ indicated that a married woman's property became her husband's.

<p>coverture</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following individuals with their contributions to women's rights:

<p>Olympe de Gouges = Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne Mary Wollstonecraft = A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Elizabeth Garrett = First woman in medicine at University of Paris The Englishwoman’s Journal = First feminist magazine</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the first demands of the organized women's movement in the late 19th century?

<p>Property rights and the right to vote (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Women in the 19th century were legally treated as minors even after marriage.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What two contrasting views emerged regarding the reasons for women's perceived inferiority?

<p>Biology (innatism) and environment (education)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following inventions was developed by George Stephenson?

<p>The steam-powered locomotive (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Great Exhibition of 1851, organized by Prince Albert, promoted protectionism and international conflict.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason for the public's disillusionment with science during the Counter Movement?

<p>Accusations of scientific arrogance and protests against vaccinations and vivisection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Britain was the first country to achieve __________ during the 19th century.

<p>industrialization</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following figures with their contributions:

<p>James Watt = Improvements to the steam engine Isambard Kingdom Brunel = The Great Western boat Lord Kelvin = Transatlantic Telegraph cable George Stephenson = First railway line in Britain</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one political drawback faced during the 1880s related to science?

<p>Liberals' aversion to science and financial austerity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Transatlantic Telegraph cable was successfully laid in 1858.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the steam engine primarily use to operate?

<p>Burning fuel such as coal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Science as a Common Ground for the Middle Class

Scientific societies in Victorian England provided a common ground for the middle class, offering a chance to engage with science and soften social and political differences. Science was seen as accessible and an area for shared exploration.

Amateur Tradition in British Science

The amateur tradition in British science during the 19th century was characterized by gentlemen with leisure time pursuing scientific interests as a hobby. This tradition shaped the development of science and fostered a public understanding of the subject.

The Royal Society as a Gentlemen's Club

The Royal Society, a prestigious scientific organization, was seen as a gentlemen's club in the 19th century. Membership was largely limited to affluent individuals, with a focus on social status and connections.

Professional Science

In contrast to the amateur tradition, professional science emerged as a distinct field, defined by its reliance on scientific activity as a primary source of income, with recognized training and a collective identity.

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Movement for the Endowment of Research

The movement for the endowment of research in the late 19th century sought to recognize the national importance of science and fund scientific endeavors. This arose from concerns about Britain's declining scientific influence.

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Rising Middle Class Men of Science

A rising middle class of scientists emerged in the 19th century, with individuals educated outside traditional universities and seeking a living wage through science-related careers in the civil service or academia.

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Fixity of Species

The belief that God created every living species individually and they remained unchanged since then.

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Evolution

The idea that living species adapt and change over time, contradicting the belief in their fixed nature.

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Great Chain of Being

A hierarchical system that places everything in the universe in order, from the lowest to the highest.

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Natural Theology

The study of nature as evidence of God's existence and attributes.

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Watchmaker Analogy

A famous analogy used by William Paley to argue for the existence of God. He compared the intricacy of a watch to the complexity of the natural world, suggesting a designer.

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Zoonomia

A groundbreaking book by Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin's grandfather, proposing that all living creatures descended from a single ancestor.

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Philosophie Zoologique

A book by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, considered the first book ever on evolution.

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Lamarckism

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory suggesting that acquired characteristics are passed down to offspring, contributing to evolution.

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The Counter Movement (1880s)

A period in the late 19th century in Britain where there was a decline in popular support for science, fueled by accusations of scientific arrogance, public distrust (anti-vaccination, anti-vivisection), and a growing sentiment that science should not be controlled by the government.

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Industrial Revolution (1760-)

The period of significant technological advancements in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries, characterized by the shift from manual labor to machine-powered production.

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The Steam Engine

A machine that converts steam pressure into mechanical power, crucial for driving industrial machinery.

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Steam-Powered Locomotive

A steam-powered vehicle used for transporting goods and people on tracks.

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The Great Exhibition of 1851

A large-scale exhibition held in London in 1851 to showcase industrial advancements from around the world, demonstrating British industrial dominance and promoting free trade.

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The Decline of British Industry?

The argument that British industry was declining, fueled by concerns about the performance of British industrialists, dwindling natural resources, and the rise of science-trained engineers in Germany and the United States.

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Transatlantic Telegraph Cable (1866)

The laying of the first transatlantic telegraph cable in 1866, connecting Ireland to Newfoundland, enabling faster communication across the Atlantic.

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Science and Industry

The use of science to achieve practical goals, particularly in engineering and industry.

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Ethnology

The study of the origin, development, and distribution of different ethnic groups and their cultures.

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Ethnography

The scientific study of cultures, customs, and beliefs of a particular group of people.

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Monogenesis

The belief that all humans belong to a single species and that all races share a common ancestor.

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Polygenesis

The belief that different human races are separate species, with no common ancestor.

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Racial science

The use of scientific methods to study and categorize different races.

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Biological determinism

The idea that biological characteristics determine a person's abilities, behaviors, and social status.

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Scientific racism

The practice of classifying and judging people based on their supposed race.

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Anthropology

The study of humans, their origin, development, and cultures.

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The Religious Crisis of 1860

The controversy sparked by the introduction of German biblical criticism to England through 'Essays and Reviews' in 1860, leading to widespread religious questioning and challenging traditional Anglican beliefs, including debates on miracles and eternal damnation.

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Darwin's Religious Journey

Darwin rejected Christianity due to his ethical objections to concepts like eternal punishment and the problem of suffering in the natural world. His loss of faith reflected a widespread Victorian concern about the compatibility of divine goodness with the harsh realities of nature.

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The 'Science vs. Religion' Narrative

The notion of a direct conflict between science and religion was partly a strategy employed by figures like T.H. Huxley to promote scientific professionalism and assert its independence from theological influences.

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Science and Religion: A Pre-Darwinian Conflict

The clash between science and religion predates Darwin's theory of evolution. For instance, geology had already challenged literal interpretations of the Bible, suggesting that tension between science and religion existed long before Darwin.

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The Huxley-Wilberforce Debate: Beyond Science vs. Religion

The famous Huxley-Wilberforce debate, while symbolic of the conflict, is an oversimplification. It represents a broader clash between traditional and progressive ideologies within Victorian society.

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The Complexity of Science and Religion in Victorian Society

The debate between science and religion in Victorian England was shaped by a complex interplay of ideas. Religious doubts stemmed from various sources, including ethical concerns, biblical criticism, and scientific discoveries.

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The Scale of the British Empire in 1897

The British Empire in 1897 encompassed an immense territory, covering one-fifth of the Earth's surface and one-quarter of the global population, highlighting its dominance.

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The British Empire's Justification for Imperialism

The British Empire used 'civilization' as a justification for its expansion and the subjugation of other peoples. Marks of civilization included clothing, religion, social organization, and property ownership, often used to legitimize imperial control.

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Angel in the House

A social ideology prevalent in Western countries during the 19th century that positioned women as domestic angels primarily responsible for nurturing and caring within the home.

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Coverture

The legal doctrine that a married woman's legal identity was subsumed by her husband's upon marriage. This meant she lost control of her property and income.

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Restrictions on Women

A term used to describe the lack of opportunities for women's education and employment during the 19th century, emphasizing the societal limitations placed on women's roles.

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Separate Spheres

The idea that men belonged in the public sphere—politics, work, and public life—while women belonged in the private sphere—the home, childrearing, and domestic duties.

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Women's Rights Movement

A movement that emerged in the 19th century advocating for women's rights. Its early demands included property rights and the right to vote.

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New Sexual Science

The belief that scientific research could reveal natural laws governing society, including the inherent differences between men and women. This often led to arguments for women's perceived biological inferiority.

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Nature vs Nurture Argument

The debate over whether women's limitations were due to innate biological differences or social conditioning. One view argued for inherent inferiority based on biology; the other for the role of education and culture.

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Physical vs Cultural Differences

The distinction between physical differences (e.g., strength) and cultural roles assigned to men and women. This debate explored whether limitations were based on inherent physical differences or societal expectations.

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Study Notes

CM Civilisation G.B: Science and Education

  • Science is intrinsically linked to education; scientists need education
  • 19th-century British Universities: Ancient English universities (Oxford and Cambridge) were initially exclusive. Over time, other groups were admitted (e.g. Catholics and Dissenters). Secular universities emerged, such as University College London and University of London to offer alternatives to Oxbridge institutions.
  • Changes in University Curricula: Liberal education dominated until the 1860s. Subjects like Classics at Oxford and Cambridge were prevalent. However, natural science courses became more prominent. Graduates increasingly pursued law, medicine, or engineering.
  • Reasons for Resistance to Science at Oxbridge: -Established classical traditions did not require significant funding for equipment or staff. -Existing institutional structures fostered resistance to change. -Ancient statutes were often inflexible, hindering change.
  • Reasons for Introducing Science into University Curricula: -International industrial competition. -Technical advancements abroad encouraged adoption of these innovations. -Increased volume of products from other countries pushed for improvement.
  • Science in New Provincial Universities: -Focus was on scientific disciplines rather than humanities as a way to contribute to regional development. -Provincial universities often established close ties with local industries

CM Civilisation G.B: Scientific Societies

  • Scientific societies were centers for scientific practice in Victorian Britain.
  • The Royal Society, the oldest, was prestigious, with exclusive membership and high fees. Its influence waned, in part due to the perceived difficulty of attendance for those not from privileged backgrounds.
  • The British Association for the Advancement of Science became a significant umbrella organisation. Annual meetings took place throughout Britain.
  • Provincial scientific societies emerged with various scientific interests. They were more inclusive and allowed for community engagement.

CM Civilisation G.B: Scientific Societies: Governance and Activities

  • Scientific societies often resembled businesses, with elected officers.
  • Members included: president, vice president, treasurer and secretary.
  • Activities included meetings to discuss and demonstrate scientific work, presentations of papers, publishing journals, and social gatherings.
  • Meetings were a way to share knowledge and foster collaboration.

CM Civilisation G.B: Amateur and Professional Traditions in British Science

  • Science was regarded as a gentleman's pursuit.
  • Individuals with notable backgrounds and wealth dominated science, resulting in the status of science as a gentleman's hobby.
  • Professionalism in science emerged. Scientists started pursuing science as a profession, with salary and academic recognition. This contributed to advancement in the field.

CM Civilisation G.B: Darwin's Theory of Evolution

  • Darwin's ideas on evolution, were not new, although he provided compelling mechanisms through which they occurred.
  • Darwin's family held somewhat unconventional beliefs. There was an interesting combination of eccentricities.
  • Darwin's observations during his voyage on the Beagle contributed substantially to his understanding.
  • Darwin's aim was to solve the problem of species. Linnaean system of taxonomy was important.
  • Darwin's theory was met with resistance and debate. -Debate had religious implications. Debate between scientist-clergymen about the conflict between religion and science. -Darwin himself rejected Christianity due to moral concerns.
  • There was increased secularization. The conflict between science and religion was not as stark as it was sometimes portrayed.

CM Civilisation G.B: Science and Gender

  • Victorian society held specific gender roles; those roles limited women’s access to education and employment.
  • Education opportunities were restricted; women received superficial or decorative education in comparison to men.
  • Women had fewer job opportunities.
  • Women could be governesses or teachers; formal employment opportunities were limited, and women were considered to be confined in the domestic sphere.

CM Civilisation G.B: Pseudosciences in 19th-Century Britain

  • Pseudosciences, like phrenology, gained popularity, often with a strong social following. They were largely seen as a way to analyze the human mind and body.
  • These practices were not taken as seriously and were challenged by scientific communities. Scientists debated the viability of these fields.
  • Pseudosciences drew upon the desire for explanation and influenced understandings of nature and human nature.

CM Civilisation G.B: Science and the Empire

  • The British Empire's rapid expansion shaped notions of civilization and race.
  • Civilized markers were often connected to religion (Christianity) and social organization.
  • The idea of race was a powerful force during this time, impacting policies and societal norms.
  • Enlightenment ideas helped shape the practice of classification.

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