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Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of white blood cells?
What is the primary role of white blood cells?
Which type of white blood cell is known for phagocytosis?
Which type of white blood cell is known for phagocytosis?
What percentage of white blood cells do lymphocytes comprise?
What percentage of white blood cells do lymphocytes comprise?
Which of the following components is found in plasma?
Which of the following components is found in plasma?
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Basophils make up what percentage of white blood cells?
Basophils make up what percentage of white blood cells?
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Which cell type primarily mediates humoral immunity?
Which cell type primarily mediates humoral immunity?
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What does a sweat chloride level of 60 mEq/L or greater indicate?
What does a sweat chloride level of 60 mEq/L or greater indicate?
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What could an increased Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) level indicate?
What could an increased Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) level indicate?
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Which of the following enzymes is primarily elevated in acute myocardial infarction (MI)?
Which of the following enzymes is primarily elevated in acute myocardial infarction (MI)?
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What does a high level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) typically indicate?
What does a high level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) typically indicate?
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Which marker is primarily associated with prostate cancer screening?
Which marker is primarily associated with prostate cancer screening?
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What is likely to happen to creatinine levels in the blood with kidney damage?
What is likely to happen to creatinine levels in the blood with kidney damage?
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What is the primary function of B cells in response to pathogens?
What is the primary function of B cells in response to pathogens?
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What condition is indicated by an increase in eosinophils?
What condition is indicated by an increase in eosinophils?
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What does a left shift in neutrophil levels signify?
What does a left shift in neutrophil levels signify?
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What is the normal range for white blood cell (WBC) count?
What is the normal range for white blood cell (WBC) count?
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Which condition is characterized by a decrease in neutrophils?
Which condition is characterized by a decrease in neutrophils?
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Which of the following is associated with an increase in basophils?
Which of the following is associated with an increase in basophils?
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What is the main component of red blood cells that carries oxygen?
What is the main component of red blood cells that carries oxygen?
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What does hematocrit measure?
What does hematocrit measure?
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What does MCH represent in red blood cell analysis?
What does MCH represent in red blood cell analysis?
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What is the primary cause of anemia?
What is the primary cause of anemia?
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How does carboxyhemoglobin affect hemoglobin?
How does carboxyhemoglobin affect hemoglobin?
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Which of the following describes methemoglobinemia?
Which of the following describes methemoglobinemia?
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What is a common symptom of sulfhemoglobinemia?
What is a common symptom of sulfhemoglobinemia?
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What condition stimulates the kidney to produce erythropoietin?
What condition stimulates the kidney to produce erythropoietin?
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What is the normal percentage of reticulocytes in total RBC count?
What is the normal percentage of reticulocytes in total RBC count?
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Which test is NOT typically used to assess hemostasis?
Which test is NOT typically used to assess hemostasis?
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What is the primary characteristic of polycythemia vera?
What is the primary characteristic of polycythemia vera?
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What is the significance of immature RBCs in newborns?
What is the significance of immature RBCs in newborns?
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What is the role of neutrophils in the immune response?
What is the role of neutrophils in the immune response?
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What is the percentage of white blood cells that eosinophils typically represent?
What is the percentage of white blood cells that eosinophils typically represent?
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Which of the following statements about basophils is correct?
Which of the following statements about basophils is correct?
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What characterizes the primary function of T cells?
What characterizes the primary function of T cells?
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Which component of a Complete Blood Count (CBC) provides information on the number and characteristics of red blood cells?
Which component of a Complete Blood Count (CBC) provides information on the number and characteristics of red blood cells?
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What is the primary cause of reduced oxygen carrying capacity in the blood?
What is the primary cause of reduced oxygen carrying capacity in the blood?
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Which condition arises primarily from chronic hypoxemia in certain populations?
Which condition arises primarily from chronic hypoxemia in certain populations?
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What is the role of erythropoietin in the body?
What is the role of erythropoietin in the body?
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How does carboxyhemoglobin affect hemoglobin function?
How does carboxyhemoglobin affect hemoglobin function?
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What characterizes methemoglobinemia?
What characterizes methemoglobinemia?
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Study Notes
Composition of Blood
- Blood consists of formed elements and plasma.
- Formed elements include white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
- Plasma contains electrolytes, clotting factors, immunologic factors, proteins, lipids, and hormones, serving as a transport medium for all cell-used substances.
- Serum is plasma minus clotting factors.
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
- CBC measures both RBC and WBC counts, with WBC count normal range being 4.0 – 11.0.
- RBC count normal ranges: Males 4.20 – 6.00; Females 3.80 – 5.20.
- Normal hemoglobin values: Males 13.5 – 18.0 g/dL; Females 12.0 – 15.0 g/dL.
- Hematocrit percentage for males is 40 – 54% and for females 35 – 49%.
- Platelet normal count: 150 - 450.
White Blood Cells (WBCs)
- WBCs play a crucial role in infection defense, with five types present in peripheral blood: Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Lymphocytes, and Monocytes.
- Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, and their differential count reveals the percentage of each WBC type.
Neutrophils
- Comprising 50 to 70% of WBCs, neutrophils are produced in bone marrow and respond to inflammation and infection.
- Have a short half-life and engage in phagocytosis; immature forms are called bands.
Eosinophils
- Make up 1 to 3% of WBCs; contain large granules that stain red.
- Involved in immune regulation and accumulate during allergic reactions.
Basophils
- Represent 0-1% of WBCs and contain dark blue/purple granules.
- Have heparin to prevent blood coagulation in inflammation and interact in allergic reactions.
Lymphocytes
- Comprise 20 to 45% of WBCs, classified into large granular lymphocytes (NK cells) and small lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).
- Essential for defense against foreign cells and pathogens.
T Cells and B Cells
- T cells engage in cell-mediated immunity; B cells are responsible for humoral immunity through antibody production.
- These cells tailor responses to effectively eliminate specific pathogens.
Monocytes
- Account for 2-11% of WBCs; termed macrophages in tissue.
- Main function is phagocytosis; levels increase with stress or chronic inflammation.
Abnormal WBC Counts
- Leukocytosis: Elevated WBC counts.
- Leukopenia: Reduced WBC counts with specific types of abnormalities (e.g., Neutrophilia, Eosinophilia).
- Neutrophilia indicates infection/inflammation response, while Neutropenia shows a decrease in neutrophils due to bone marrow failure.
Hemoglobin and Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
- Main component of RBCs is hemoglobin (Hb), vital for oxygen transport; lifespan of RBCs is approximately 120 days.
- Each RBC contains 200-300 million Hb molecules, which also help buffer blood pH.
Hematocrit (Hct)
- Hematocrit measures the proportion of RBC volume in blood: Men 40-54%, Women 35-49%.
RBC Indices
- Include MCV (mean corpuscular volume), MCH (mean corpuscular hemoglobin), and MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration) to classify anemias.
Anemia
- Refers to reduced RBC mass caused by blood loss, formation deficiencies, or chronic disease, leading to decreased oxygen carrying capacity.
Methemoglobinemia and Carboxyhemoglobin
- Methemoglobinemia prevents oxygen from binding to hemoglobin; occurs due to certain chemicals.
- Carboxyhemoglobin forms when carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin, having a much higher affinity than oxygen.
Polycythemia
- Increased RBC and hemoglobin levels; primary and secondary forms exist, with the latter commonly seen in chronic hypoxemia.
Hemostasis
- Refers to blood clotting ability; normal plasma clot formation should take less than one minute.
- Key tests include platelet count, APTT, and PT/INR.
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and Creatinine
- Primary tests for kidney function; BUN normal range is 7-20 mg/dL, while creatinine ranges from 0.7-1.3 mg/dL.
- Increased BUN over 60 suggests moderate to severe kidney issues, often indicating dehydration.
Enzymes of Clinical Significance
- Enzymes like AST, ALT, ALP, and others are measured to assess organ function damage or disease.
Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
- Secreted by the heart in response to myocyte stretching; important for diagnosing heart failure, with normal values < 100 pg/mL.
Glucose Regulation
- Essential for energy production; normal fasting levels range from 70-105 mg/dL.
- Diabetes types I and II impact insulin production and glucose metabolism.
Protein
- Primary serum protein is albumin (60%), critical for drug transport and oncotic pressure maintenance; total protein levels decrease with liver disease and malnutrition.
Composition of Blood
- Blood consists of formed elements (leukocytes, erythrocytes, thrombocytes) and plasma.
- Plasma contains electrolytes, clotting factors, immunologic factors, proteins, lipids, and hormones.
- Serum is defined as plasma minus clotting factors.
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
- Includes counts for RBCs and WBCs, alongside a differential count for WBC types.
- RBC indices assess cell number, size, shape, and hemoglobin content.
- Normal WBC count ranges from 4.0 to 11.0.
- Normal RBC counts: Males (4.20 – 6.00), Females (3.80 – 5.20).
- Normal hemoglobin levels: Males (13.5 – 18.0 g/dL), Females (12.0 – 15.0 g/dL).
- Normal hematocrit percentages: Males (40 – 54), Females (35 – 49).
- Normal platelet count ranges from 150 to 450.
White Blood Cells (WBCs)
- WBCs play a crucial role in fighting infections, comprising five types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.
- Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) help determine specific WBC response through differential counts.
Neutrophils
- Account for 50 to 70% of WBCs; also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
- They are produced in the bone marrow, engage in inflammation and infections, and possess a short lifespan.
- Immature neutrophils, known as bands, circulate in the blood.
Eosinophils
- Represent 1 to 3% of WBCs with large granules that stain bright red.
- Function in immune regulation and accumulate during allergic reactions.
Basophils
- Make up 0-1% of WBCs, have dark blue/purple granules, and contain heparin to prevent blood coagulation.
- Involved in allergic reactions similar to eosinophils.
Lymphocytes
- Comprise 20 to 45% of WBCs, divided into large granular lymphocytes (natural killer cells) and small lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).
- Serve as a primary defense against foreign microorganisms and abnormal cells.
T Cells and B Cells
- T cells support cell-mediated immunity while B cells are pivotal for humoral immunity and antibody production.
- RBC functionality is indicated by MCH (mean corpuscular hemoglobin) and MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration) values.
Anemia
- Characterized by a reduction in RBC mass due to blood loss, deficiencies, abnormal cell formation, chronic disease, or aging.
- Results in decreased oxygen-carrying capacity, often due to iron deficiency.
Carboxyhemoglobin and Other Abnormalities
- Carboxyhemoglobin forms when carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin, significantly impairing oxygen transport.
- Methemoglobinemia arises from chemical exposure, where O2 cannot associate with hemoglobin.
- Sulfhemoglobinemia leads to bluish/greenish blood discoloration without hematological abnormalities.
Polycythemia
- Results in increased RBC count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit.
- Differentiated into primary (rare) and secondary (common, often due to chronic hypoxemia in conditions like COPD or heavy smoking).
Reticulocytes
- Immature RBCs, higher levels may indicate bone marrow stress and assist in anemia evaluation.
Hemostasis
- The process preventing bleeding; tests include platelet count, APTT, and PT/INR.
- Platelet counts are critical for clot formation.
- Thrombocytopenia indicates low platelets, while thrombocytosis indicates high levels.
Electrolytes
- Essential for conducting electrical currents and managing fluid balance.
- Commonly measured electrolytes include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-).
Sodium
- The major extracellular cation, regulated by renal function and hormones such as aldosterone and ADH.
- Normal sodium levels range from 135 to 145 mmol/L. Hypernatremia (>147 mEq/L) results from water loss, while hyponatremia (<137 mEq/L) signifies excessive sodium loss.
Chloride and Bicarbonate
- Chloride serves as a major extracellular anion, with normal levels between 98 - 107 mEq/L.
- Bicarbonate maintains acid-base balance, normal levels are 22-26 mEq/L; altered levels indicate metabolic conditions.
Anion Gap
- Represents the balance of cations and anions; calculated as AG = [Na+] - [Cl−] + [HCO3−].
- Normal gap is 8-16 mEq/L; gaps can indicate specific conditions such as ketoacidosis or liver cirrhosis.
Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
- A hormone from heart ventricles, indicating excessive stretching, and aiding in differentiating dyspnea origins.
- Normal BNP levels are <100 pg/mL; levels > 100 pg/mL suggest mild heart failure.
Glucose
- Produced from carbohydrate digestion, needed for energy, with normal fasting levels from 70 to 105 mg/dL.
- Type I diabetes results from complete insulin deficiency, while Type II involves insulin resistance and associated hyperglycemia.
Protein
- Albumin constitutes 60% of serum protein, crucial for transporting compounds and maintaining oncotic pressure.
- Decreased protein levels indicate liver disease or malnutrition.
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Description
This quiz covers the key concepts from Chapter 7 of Clinical Laboratory Studies, focusing on Hematology. You will explore the composition of blood, including the formed elements such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets, as well as the role of plasma and serum in transporting vital substances. Test your understanding of Complete Blood Count (CBC) as well.
