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Questions and Answers
What does UV-Vis Spectrophotometry measure?
Which of the following techniques is used for protein analysis?
Which technique would be best to analyze the concentration of sodium in a biological sample?
Which of the following is a method for analyzing blood specimens?
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Which of the following components is NOT typically analyzed in clinical chemistry?
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Which analytical technique is not used in clinical chemistry?
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What is the purpose of the fixation process in histopathology?
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Which test assesses the kidney function?
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Which of the following processes is performed after fixation in histopathology?
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What does ELISA stand for in clinical chemistry?
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Which of these tests is used for assessing liver function?
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Which of the following steps is not involved in tissue preparation for histopathology?
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What is the main purpose of trimming tissues before placing them in a microtome block holder?
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In clinical microscopy, what is the primary function of dipstick urinalysis?
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What does a basic urinalysis typically include?
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Which color indicates a normal result in a Papanicoulaou (Pap) stain?
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What is the primary focus of cytology?
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What does the process of specimen identification involve?
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Which abnormal result in urinalysis might indicate the presence of kidney stones?
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What is one of the potential uses of the Papanicoulaou test?
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What is not included in a gross/physical examination of urine?
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What indicates a panic value regarding potassium levels?
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Which enzyme is considered more specific for pancreatitis than amylase?
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What does a rise in amylase levels suggest?
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What condition is indicated by elevated levels of Creatine Kinase (CK)?
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What role does bicarbonate play in the body?
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Which enzyme is specifically a marker for heart muscle damage?
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What condition can lead to kidney damage due to the release of myoglobin?
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What is a key benefit of automation in clinical chemistry?
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What is the primary purpose of enzyme tests in medical diagnostics?
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Which instrument is used in clinical chemistry for testing?
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How does the blood concentration technique enhance examination?
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In the examination of blood, what does the 'Thick and Thin Blood Smear' primarily help diagnose?
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What is the purpose of pneumatic tube systems in clinical chemistry?
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What is a common technique used for the examination of fecal specimens?
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What characteristic defines parasites in relation to their hosts?
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What is the main advantage of using a thick blood smear over a thin blood smear?
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Study Notes
Clinical Chemistry
- Deals with the chemical components of biological samples
- Basic chemical laboratory technique, chemical laboratory safety, electrolytes and acid-base balance, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, enzymes, metabolites, endocrine function, and toxicology are all key components of Clinical Chemistry.
- Analytical Techniques include:
- Spectrophotometry
- Measures the absorbance of light
- Used to determine concentration
- Types:
- UV-Vis Spectrophotometry: Measures absorbance in the ultraviolet and visible range.
- Flame Photometry: Measures light emitted by excited atoms (used for sodium and potassium analysis).
- Pseudo False increase of potassium → because of hemolysis → Hemolysis is a pre-analytical error → Increased potassium levels → panic value indicating that there is a heart problem
- Chromatography
- Separates components of a mixture (eg. amino acids, proteins, drugs) based on their different affinities to a stationary phase
- Types
- Gas Chromatography (GC) : Separates gases or volatile compounds
- Liquid Chromatography (LC) : Separates liquids or dissolved compounds
- High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) : A faster and more sensitive version of LC
- Mass Spectrometry (MS)
- Measures the mass to charge ratio of ions
- Electrophoresis
- Separates molecules (eg. proteins, nucleic
acids) based on size and charge
- Types:
- Gel Electrophoresis: Used for protein and DNA analysis
- Capillary Electrophoresis: Offers higher resolution and faster analysis
- Types:
- Separates molecules (eg. proteins, nucleic
acids) based on size and charge
- Ion-Selective Electrode (ISE) Analysis
- Measures concentration of specific ions in a sample
- Most commonly used for electrolytes:
- Chloride - Helps maintain acid-base balance
- Bicarbonate - Regulates pH in the blood
- Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
- Uses antibodies to detect and quantify specific antigens or
antibodies in a sample
- Diagnostic applications for various conditions like infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer
- Uses antibodies to detect and quantify specific antigens or
antibodies in a sample
- Spectrophotometry
- Diabetes-Related Tests
- Fasting Blood Glucose (FBG)
- Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
- Hemoglobin A1c (HbAc)
- Lipid Profile
- Measures key lipoproteins in the blood, including cholesterol and triglycerides
- Liver Function Tests
- Assess the health of the liver
- Measures enzyme levels, bilirubin, and albumin
- Kidney Function Test
- Evaluates how well the kidneys are filtering waste
- Measures creatinine, urea, and electrolytes
- Thyroid Function Test
- Assesses the thyroid hormone levels
- Helps diagnose thyroid disorders, including hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.
- Cardiac Biomarkers
- Identify heart muscle damage
- Used in the diagnosis and management of heart attacks
- Endocrine Function Test
- Assess the function of endocrine glands, like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands
- Detect and monitor hormonal imbalances
- Electrolyte Test
- Measures levels of electrolytes in the blood, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate
- Enzymes
- Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions in the body
- Purpose of Enzyme Tests:
- Diagnose diseases affecting specific organs (e.g., heart, liver, pancreas).
- Liver Enzymes:
- Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)
- Elevated in liver damage, including conditions like hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer
- Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)
- More specific to liver damage than AST
- Elevated in conditions like hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer
- Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)
Histopathology
- The study of tissues and cells under a microscope
- Process:
- Accessioning: The process of receiving and logging in a specimen
- Fixation: Prevents tissue degradation and preserves its structure
- Dehydration: Removes water from the tissue, preparing it for embedding
- Clearing: Replace water with a solvent that is miscible with paraffin
- Infiltration or Impregnation: Infuse the tissue with wax (paraffin) for support and cutting
- Embedding: The process of surrounding the tissue with wax to create a solid block
- Blocking: Preparing the tissue block for sectioning by cutting excess wax and creating a flat surface
- Trimming or Facing: Removing excess wax and creating a flat surface for sectioning
- Sectioning: Thin slices of tissue (microtome)
- Staining: Add color to the tissue to enhance its visual detail and highlight specific structures
- Mounting: Attaching the tissue section to a glass slide
- Labeling: Identifying the slide with the specimen information
Parasitology
- The study of parasites
- Organisms that live on and obtain their nutrients from another organism.
- Host - The organism from which a parasite obtains its nutrition and/or shelter
- Types:
- Endoparasite: Lives inside of the host
- Examples: Tapeworm, Roundworm
- Ectoparasite: Lives outside of the host
- Example: Lice
- Endoparasite: Lives inside of the host
- Examination of Blood
- Thick and Thin Blood Smear
- Used in the diagnosis of Plasmodium spp.
- A drop of blood is used to examine blood parasites
- Blood Concentration Technique - More sample volume - mL of blood - More sensitive
- Thick and Thin Blood Smear
Cytology
- The study of cells
- Pap’s Stain
- Part of exfoliative cytology
- Study normal and abnormal cells for the evaluation of various infections, abnormal hormonal activities, and even precancerous lesions.
- Types:
- Exfoliative cytology
- Fine-needle aspiration cytology
- Cervical cytology (Pap smear)
Clinical Microscopy
- Examines microscopic constituents of body fluids, such as urine, feces, and spinal fluid
- Urinalysis
- Dipstick Urinalysis:
- A quick and easy test performed in screening laboratories - Uses a dipstick or a reagent strip - Basic (Routine) Urinalysis
- Adds a microscopic examination of urine sediment to the reagent strip urinalysis
- Specimen evaluations
- Specimen acceptability
- Gross/ Physical Examination:
- Color
- Light yellow and yellow - normal
- Dark yellow - dehydrated
- Red - most common abnormal color
- In men: can indicate presence of kidney stones
- Color
- Microscopic Examination: Examines urine sediment for cells, casts, crystals, and other components
- Labeling: Providing permanent specimen identification with printed or electronic scanned labels of the prepared glass slides for proper identification.
- Dipstick Urinalysis:
Automation in Clinical Chemistry
- Benefits
- Increased speed and accuracy
- Reduces human error
- Can process large volumes of samples
- Instruments:
- Chemistry Analyzers (e.g., Beckman Coulter, Siemens)
- Integrated systems for simultaneous testing
Pneumatic Tube Systems
- Transfer of specimen
- Quick and safe way to transport samples from one place to another
- Much faster than manually delivering a sample by a healthcare provider.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of Clinical Chemistry, including laboratory techniques and the analysis of biological samples. This quiz covers electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and analytical methods like spectrophotometry and chromatography. Enhance your understanding of how chemical processes relate to health and disease.
