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Questions and Answers
What is the genetic material found in viruses?
What is the genetic material found in viruses?
Viruses can replicate on their own without a host cell.
Viruses can replicate on their own without a host cell.
False (B)
Name one feature by which viruses are categorized.
Name one feature by which viruses are categorized.
Genetic material, presence of a lipid envelope, shape, or replication strategy.
A virus's outer structure is known as the __________.
A virus's outer structure is known as the __________.
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Match the following steps of viral reproduction with their correct order:
Match the following steps of viral reproduction with their correct order:
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What is the function of the lipid envelope in some viruses?
What is the function of the lipid envelope in some viruses?
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Viral particles exit the host cell only through lysis.
Viral particles exit the host cell only through lysis.
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What is the result of a virus attaching to a host cell?
What is the result of a virus attaching to a host cell?
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What mechanism allows SARS-CoV-2 variants like Delta and Omicron to evade the immune system?
What mechanism allows SARS-CoV-2 variants like Delta and Omicron to evade the immune system?
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Innate immunity involves T-cells and B-cells, which provide specific immune responses.
Innate immunity involves T-cells and B-cells, which provide specific immune responses.
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What type of genome does SARS-CoV-2 possess?
What type of genome does SARS-CoV-2 possess?
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The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is involved in its ability to evade the immune system.
The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 is involved in its ability to evade the immune system.
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What type of vaccine uses a weakened live virus?
What type of vaccine uses a weakened live virus?
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The acquired immune response involves four main steps: recognition, activation, effector response, and _______.
The acquired immune response involves four main steps: recognition, activation, effector response, and _______.
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What role does ACE2 play in the human body?
What role does ACE2 play in the human body?
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Match the type of vaccine with its description:
Match the type of vaccine with its description:
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The spike protein is a trimeric __________ that facilitates viral entry into host cells by binding to the ACE2 receptor.
The spike protein is a trimeric __________ that facilitates viral entry into host cells by binding to the ACE2 receptor.
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Match the following proteins with their functions:
Match the following proteins with their functions:
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Which component of the immune system is responsible for producing antibodies?
Which component of the immune system is responsible for producing antibodies?
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Which mechanism allows SARS-CoV-2 to enter host cells?
Which mechanism allows SARS-CoV-2 to enter host cells?
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The mRNA vaccines require live virus to trigger an immune response.
The mRNA vaccines require live virus to trigger an immune response.
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What is the primary function of cytotoxic T-cells?
What is the primary function of cytotoxic T-cells?
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SARS-CoV-2 can prevent ACE2 from performing its regulatory role.
SARS-CoV-2 can prevent ACE2 from performing its regulatory role.
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Name a strategy employed by SARS-CoV-2 to evade the immune system.
Name a strategy employed by SARS-CoV-2 to evade the immune system.
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Flashcards
Viral Structure
Viral Structure
Viruses consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat (capsid). Some have a lipid envelope from the host cell.
Viral Categorization
Viral Categorization
Viruses are grouped based on their genetic material (DNA or RNA), presence of a lipid envelope, shape (like helical or icosahedral), and replication process.
Viral Replication: Attachment
Viral Replication: Attachment
The initial step in viral replication, where the virus binds to a host cell.
Viral Replication: Entry
Viral Replication: Entry
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High Altitude Breathing: Molecular Level
High Altitude Breathing: Molecular Level
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High Altitude Breathing: Cellular Level
High Altitude Breathing: Cellular Level
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High Altitude Breathing: Organ Level
High Altitude Breathing: Organ Level
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High Altitude Breathing: Organismal Level
High Altitude Breathing: Organismal Level
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SARS-CoV-2 entry pathway
SARS-CoV-2 entry pathway
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Spike protein function
Spike protein function
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ACE2's role in homeostasis
ACE2's role in homeostasis
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Viral genome type
Viral genome type
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Open Reading Frame (ORF)
Open Reading Frame (ORF)
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Structural vs. Non-structural proteins
Structural vs. Non-structural proteins
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Immune evasion mechanisms
Immune evasion mechanisms
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Spike protein structure
Spike protein structure
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Viral Variants
Viral Variants
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Spike Protein
Spike Protein
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Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
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Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
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mRNA Vaccine
mRNA Vaccine
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Vaccine Clinical Trials
Vaccine Clinical Trials
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Spike Protein Mechanism
Spike Protein Mechanism
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Acquired Immunity
Acquired Immunity
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Study Notes
Climate Change (Andean Hummingbirds)
- Andean hummingbirds are likely to respond to climate change by shifting their altitudinal range, potentially moving to higher elevations in search of cooler temperatures.
- This could lead to changes in migration patterns and breeding behaviors.
- Climate change could affect the availability of nectar-producing plants. Changes in bloom times due to temperature shifts might impact food availability for hummingbirds.
- Habitat loss at higher altitudes due to vegetation changes, or extreme weather events like droughts and heavy rain, could negatively impact hummingbirds' habitats and survival.
- Hummingbirds with greater adaptability to altitude changes and wider ranges of flowers or habitats will have a higher chance of survival. Species with narrow ecological niches or dependent on specific types of flowers are at a higher risk.
Why Are We Still Talking About Geese?
- Geese are used as model systems in ecological studies due to their migratory behavior, impact on ecosystems, or role in understanding avian physiology.
- Studies on geese can provide insights into the effects of climate change on species behavior and distribution.
High Altitude Breathing Unit
- Molecular Level: Changes in the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity, such as hemoglobin's role, can be important.
- Cellular Level: Red blood cells adapt to high-altitude conditions by increasing the number of hemoglobin molecules.
- Organ Level: The respiratory system adapts to the increased rates needed for respiration in low oxygen environments.
- Organismal Level: Animals respond to hypoxia (low oxygen) at high altitudes, including increased red blood cell production.
- Population Level: Species in high-altitude environments adapt over time.
- Community Level: Competition for oxygen-rich resources occurs between species in high-altitude ecosystems.
Viral Reproduction
- Viruses consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.
- Some viruses have a lipid envelope derived from the host cell membrane.
SARS-CoV-2
- SARS-CoV-2 uses the ACE2 receptor to enter human cells, primarily in the lungs.
- The virus enters cells via endocytosis after binding to ACE2.
- The spike protein aids in infection by binding to the ACE2 receptor on host cells.
- ACE2 proteins regulate blood pressure. SARS-CoV-2 disrupts this, preventing its normal effects.
- The SARS-CoV-2 genome is a single-stranded positive RNA molecule with ~30,000 nucleotides.
Immune System
- The vertebrate immune system has two parts: innate and adaptive immunity.
- Innate immunity involves physical barriers, immune cells (like macrophages), and molecules like cytokines.
- Adaptive immunity uses T-cells (and B-cells) for specific immune responses and memory.
Vaccines
- Vaccines include live attenuated, inactivated, subunit, and mRNA vaccines.
- Clinical testing involves phases: 1 (safety), 2 (immune response), 3 (efficacy), and 4 (post-market surveillance).
- mRNA vaccines utilize lipid nanoparticles to deliver messenger RNA encoding viral proteins, triggering an immune response without the use of a live virus.
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Description
Explore how climate change is affecting the Andean hummingbirds' altitudinal shifts, migration patterns, and breeding behaviors. Understand the implications of habitat loss and the adaptability of different hummingbird species in response to environmental changes. Delve into the challenges posed by changing food availability and extreme weather events on these unique birds.
