Classical Conditioning

• Learning theories appeared in the latter part of the 19th and early 20th centuries
• Scholars aimed to explain human behavior through systematic observation, objective measurement, and statistical probability
• Behavioral flexibility allows individuals to adapt to their environment
• Key figures in the development of learning theories include Ivan Pavlov, E. L. Thorndike, John Watson, B. F. Skinner, Clark Hull, Albert Bandura, Edward Tolman, and Walter Mischel
• The primary aim was to uncover fundamental principles of learning

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, studied digestive reflexes
• Animals can learn to associate unrelated stimuli with digestion
• Conditioned reflexes are learned associations
• Stimulus-response connections are known as reflexes
• A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• The reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus is the unconditioned response (UCR)

Classical Conditioning Process

• A neutral stimulus, when paired with a meaningful stimulus, becomes associated, leading to a learned response
• Through repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
• The response to the conditioned stimulus is the conditioned response (CR)
• Conditioning helps learners identify patterns and structures in their environment
• Conditioning occurs systematically through relationships between events

Classical Conditioning Applications

• Conditioning explains emotional responses toward different objects, events, or places
• Conditioning helps explain variability between individuals

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction demonstrates that learning is adaptable
• Spontaneous recovery indicates that learners test the environment for permanent changes
• The relationship between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) must be continuously re-established

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger a response
• Generalization helps apply learning to different situations
• Discrimination occurs when a learner responds only to a specific conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

• E.L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, studied animal learning using puzzle boxes
• Thorndike studied how cats learned to escape from boxes via trial- and-error learning

Laws of Operant Conditioning

• Law of Effect: Rewarded responses are strengthened, while unrewarded responses are weakened
• Law of Exercise: The more a stimulus-response connection is repeated, the stronger it becomes

Reinforcement

• Voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences in operant conditioning
• Reinforcement increases the frequency of desirable behavior
• Positive uses stimulus
• Negative reinforcement removes stimulus
• Shaping develops new complex responses
• Use of continuous and intermittent reinforcement

Extinction and Punishment

• Extinction occurs when an expected reinforcer no longer follows a response
• Punishment discourages undesirable behavior through a noxious consequence

Key Differences

• Classical- conditioned reflex, best to internal response and non-voluntary response
• Operant - a response must occur for it to be reinforced, best for external responses and voluntary response

Social Learning Theory

• Observational learning occurs through imitation of others' behavior
• Albert Bandura received a Ph.D. from the University of Iowa and held a faculty position at Stanford in 1953
• Bandura challenged the trial-and-error and reward/punishment explanation of learning
• Learning occurred through observation and experimentation with children and the Bobo doll

Conditions Influencing Imitation

• Imitation occurs when children observe someone acting generously or kindly
• Children imitate aggression and helping behaviors
• People learn from observed behaviours

Cognitive Behaviorism

• Involves numerous mental activities that influence behavior, such as thoughts, attention, emotions, and motivation
• Focuses on a person's internal representation of the environment
• Edward Tolman explored variables of learning
• Intervening variables are mental processes between a stimulus and a response
• Cognitive map is a mental representation of the environment

Cognitive Factors

• Cognitive assessments about abilities and consequences
• One's confidence to perform behaviours in a situation
• Proposed by Albert Bandura founded SCT, which also focuses on self efficacy

Social Cognitive Theory

• The proposal that learning and behavior are a dynamic view with interactive factors involving: internal, behavioral actions and environmental

The Sense of Agency

• Highlights the importance of agency
• defined as the ability to act with intention and purpose
• Cognitive components involve intentionality and forethought
• Emotional, involves emotions contribute to effective action
• Social/environment involves social and how it impacts the person

Experiential Learning Theory

• Learning occurs by experience
• Integrates behavior and cognition
• Reflection on experiences and experimentation with new behaviors