Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary distinction made in the learning-performance distinction?
What is the primary distinction made in the learning-performance distinction?
Which of the following statements accurately describes acquisition in classical conditioning?
Which of the following statements accurately describes acquisition in classical conditioning?
Which scenario best exemplifies spontaneous recovery?
Which scenario best exemplifies spontaneous recovery?
What is a key factor in the process of classical conditioning?
What is a key factor in the process of classical conditioning?
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What does stimulus generalization refer to?
What does stimulus generalization refer to?
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In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is best defined as:
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is best defined as:
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Which example demonstrates habituation?
Which example demonstrates habituation?
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What is a conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
What is a conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
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What type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior?
What type of reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior?
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Which type of memory requires conscious effort to recall specific facts or events?
Which type of memory requires conscious effort to recall specific facts or events?
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In observational learning, what factor increases the likelihood of an observer imitating a model's behavior?
In observational learning, what factor increases the likelihood of an observer imitating a model's behavior?
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Which schedule of reinforcement provides reinforcement after an average number of responses?
Which schedule of reinforcement provides reinforcement after an average number of responses?
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Which type of memory is characterized by holding brief sensory experiences before they are processed?
Which type of memory is characterized by holding brief sensory experiences before they are processed?
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What is the primary difference between reinforcement and punishment in behavior modification?
What is the primary difference between reinforcement and punishment in behavior modification?
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What is the limited capacity of short-term memory, as proposed by Miller's magic number?
What is the limited capacity of short-term memory, as proposed by Miller's magic number?
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Which type of punishment involves the removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior?
Which type of punishment involves the removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior?
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What cognitive process involves mental representation of information based on sensory input?
What cognitive process involves mental representation of information based on sensory input?
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In the context of operant conditioning, what is defined by behaviors followed by satisfying consequences becoming more likely?
In the context of operant conditioning, what is defined by behaviors followed by satisfying consequences becoming more likely?
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What type of memory is specifically related to storing knowledge about how to perform tasks?
What type of memory is specifically related to storing knowledge about how to perform tasks?
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Which cognitive component of working memory is responsible for processing visual information?
Which cognitive component of working memory is responsible for processing visual information?
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What will likely decrease the probability of imitating a behavior observed in a model?
What will likely decrease the probability of imitating a behavior observed in a model?
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Which type of processing at encoding has been shown to be the most effective for retention during retrieval?
Which type of processing at encoding has been shown to be the most effective for retention during retrieval?
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In the context of serial position effects, what describes the improved recall of items at the end of a list?
In the context of serial position effects, what describes the improved recall of items at the end of a list?
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What is the function of mnemonics in memory enhancement?
What is the function of mnemonics in memory enhancement?
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Which trait theory is characterized by 16 broad factors derived from factor analysis?
Which trait theory is characterized by 16 broad factors derived from factor analysis?
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What psychological theory posits that behavior is largely influenced by powerful unconscious forces?
What psychological theory posits that behavior is largely influenced by powerful unconscious forces?
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According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following represents the shallowest level of processing?
According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following represents the shallowest level of processing?
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What is a key characteristic of traits in the Big Five Model?
What is a key characteristic of traits in the Big Five Model?
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In Eysenck's personality dimensions, which factor is associated with emotional stability versus instability?
In Eysenck's personality dimensions, which factor is associated with emotional stability versus instability?
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What is proactive interference in the context of memory retrieval?
What is proactive interference in the context of memory retrieval?
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What trait is associated with high levels of aggression and impulsive behavior according to psychoticism?
What trait is associated with high levels of aggression and impulsive behavior according to psychoticism?
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What are prototypes used for in memory categorization?
What are prototypes used for in memory categorization?
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Freud's concept of fixation in psychosexual development mainly affects which aspect of personality?
Freud's concept of fixation in psychosexual development mainly affects which aspect of personality?
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How does elaborative rehearsal enhance memory retention?
How does elaborative rehearsal enhance memory retention?
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The concept of schemas primarily contributes to which cognitive function?
The concept of schemas primarily contributes to which cognitive function?
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What does the ID primarily operate on?
What does the ID primarily operate on?
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Which of the following best describes the superego?
Which of the following best describes the superego?
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What is the primary function of defense mechanisms?
What is the primary function of defense mechanisms?
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Which of the following criticisms is NOT typically associated with Freud's theories?
Which of the following criticisms is NOT typically associated with Freud's theories?
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What motivates behavior according to humanistic theories?
What motivates behavior according to humanistic theories?
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs emphasizes that:
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs emphasizes that:
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What concept is central to Carl Rogers' Self Theory?
What concept is central to Carl Rogers' Self Theory?
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What happens when there is a larger discrepancy between one's self-perception and experiences according to Rogers?
What happens when there is a larger discrepancy between one's self-perception and experiences according to Rogers?
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What key factor influences self-efficacy according to Bandura?
What key factor influences self-efficacy according to Bandura?
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Social-cognitive theories are criticized for overlooking what aspect?
Social-cognitive theories are criticized for overlooking what aspect?
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In Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Theory, which cognitive affective unit involves our emotional responses?
In Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Theory, which cognitive affective unit involves our emotional responses?
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What is the role of praise in developing an intrinsic locus of control?
What is the role of praise in developing an intrinsic locus of control?
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Which of the following aspects differentiates social-cognitive theories from trait theories?
Which of the following aspects differentiates social-cognitive theories from trait theories?
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What is a potential consequence of denying or distorting reality to maintain self-consistency?
What is a potential consequence of denying or distorting reality to maintain self-consistency?
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What is the primary focus of personality psychology?
What is the primary focus of personality psychology?
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Which learning method primarily involves learning through reinforcement and punishment?
Which learning method primarily involves learning through reinforcement and punishment?
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What type of memory is characterized by conscious recall and includes episodic and semantic memories?
What type of memory is characterized by conscious recall and includes episodic and semantic memories?
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In the context of social psychology, what does groupthink refer to?
In the context of social psychology, what does groupthink refer to?
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What concept does attribution theory primarily investigate?
What concept does attribution theory primarily investigate?
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Which of the following describes the relationship between classical conditioning and a conditioned response?
Which of the following describes the relationship between classical conditioning and a conditioned response?
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What defines implicit (non-declarative) memory compared to explicit (declarative) memory?
What defines implicit (non-declarative) memory compared to explicit (declarative) memory?
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What is a major criticism of behaviorism as a psychological approach?
What is a major criticism of behaviorism as a psychological approach?
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Which aspect of memory is responsible for maintaining information over time?
Which aspect of memory is responsible for maintaining information over time?
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What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in Pavlov's experiment?
What is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in Pavlov's experiment?
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What concept reflects the tendency to behave differently in a group versus individually?
What concept reflects the tendency to behave differently in a group versus individually?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of observational learning?
Which of the following is a characteristic of observational learning?
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In the context of social influence, what is the concept of compliance?
In the context of social influence, what is the concept of compliance?
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Which of the following is a key component of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Which of the following is a key component of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
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What is one limitation of the psychodynamic theories in understanding personality?
What is one limitation of the psychodynamic theories in understanding personality?
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How does the concept of psychic determinism relate to Freud's theories?
How does the concept of psychic determinism relate to Freud's theories?
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Which aspect of Carl Rogers' Self Theory emphasizes the development of self-concept?
Which aspect of Carl Rogers' Self Theory emphasizes the development of self-concept?
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What is a central premise of Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory?
What is a central premise of Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory?
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Which criticism is often directed towards Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?
Which criticism is often directed towards Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?
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In the context of Behavioral Genetics, what is the implication of higher correlation between identical twins compared to fraternal twins?
In the context of Behavioral Genetics, what is the implication of higher correlation between identical twins compared to fraternal twins?
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How does Maslow's concept of self-actualization influence humanistic theories?
How does Maslow's concept of self-actualization influence humanistic theories?
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What flaw is noted regarding the evaluation of social-cognitive theories?
What flaw is noted regarding the evaluation of social-cognitive theories?
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What term describes the mental strategies used by the ego to minimize conflict between the id and superego?
What term describes the mental strategies used by the ego to minimize conflict between the id and superego?
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Which of the following reflects a primary drive according to Freud's theories?
Which of the following reflects a primary drive according to Freud's theories?
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Which of the following accurately describes the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Which of the following accurately describes the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
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What is the role of the central executive in working memory?
What is the role of the central executive in working memory?
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What characterizes implicit memory compared to explicit memory?
What characterizes implicit memory compared to explicit memory?
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Which of the following best defines proactive interference?
Which of the following best defines proactive interference?
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What is the significance of Miller's magic number in memory theory?
What is the significance of Miller's magic number in memory theory?
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In terms of encoding, which method provides the deepest processing of information?
In terms of encoding, which method provides the deepest processing of information?
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Which component of working memory is specifically responsible for managing visual and spatial information?
Which component of working memory is specifically responsible for managing visual and spatial information?
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What is a key characteristic of the primacy effect in memory recall?
What is a key characteristic of the primacy effect in memory recall?
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How does chunking contribute to the improvement of short-term memory?
How does chunking contribute to the improvement of short-term memory?
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How do schemas aid in cognitive processing?
How do schemas aid in cognitive processing?
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What feature distinguishes the Big Five personality model from other personality theories?
What feature distinguishes the Big Five personality model from other personality theories?
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What does elaborative rehearsal aim to achieve?
What does elaborative rehearsal aim to achieve?
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Which personality theory is characterized by the identification of 16 source traits?
Which personality theory is characterized by the identification of 16 source traits?
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Which of the following statements about declarative memory is correct?
Which of the following statements about declarative memory is correct?
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Study Notes
Learning
- Learning involves consistent behavior change based on experience.
- The learning-performance distinction refers to the difference between what is learned and what is displayed.
- Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus due to repeated exposure.
Classical Conditioning
- A form of learning where one stimulus predicts another, creating learned associations.
- Discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying canine digestion.
- Key elements include stimuli and reflexes.
- Pavlov observed dogs salivating before food, associating external cues like sounds with food.
Conditioning Terms
- An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits a behavior.
- An unconditioned response (UCR) is the behavior elicited by the UCS.
- A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, can elicit behavior.
- A conditioned response (CR) is the behavior elicited by the CS.
Features of Classical Conditioning
- Repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with a biologically significant stimulus turns the neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
- Observed in reflexes like salivation, pupil contraction, and knee jerks.
- Pairing stimuli with naturally eliciting reflexes leads to associating the stimulus with the behavior.
Processes of Conditioning
- Acquisition is the process where the conditioned response is first elicited and strengthens over repeated trials.
- Extinction is the weakening of the conditioned response due to the absence of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
- Spontaneous recovery is the sudden reappearance of the conditioned response after a period without exposure to the unconditioned stimulus.
Acquisition & Timing
- Timing of stimulus presentation is crucial for acquisition.
- Different presentations include:
- Forward-short delay (bell ringing followed by food).
- Forward-trace (bell ringing, then stopping, and then food).
- Simultaneous (food and bell at the same time).
Processes of Conditioning
- Stimulus generalization is the automatic extension of conditioned responses to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
- Stimulus discrimination is learning to respond differently to stimuli that differ from the conditioned stimulus.
Classical Conditioning Applications
- Used in behavioral therapies to treat phobias and anxieties by pairing a feared stimulus with a relaxing, positive experience.
Operant Conditioning
- Learning procedures that manipulate behavior consequences to observe their impact.
- Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect proposes that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur.
- Based on the idea that behaviors are emitted voluntarily and influenced by the environment and their consequences.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Partial reinforcement effect suggests that responses acquired under partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement.
- Reinforcers can be delivered according to ratios (number of responses) or intervals (time).
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
- Variable-ratio: An average number of responses between reinforcers is predetermined.
- Fixed-interval: Reinforcement for the first response after a fixed period of time.
- Variable-interval: An average interval between reinforcers is predetermined.
Reinforcers
- Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior, leading to an increase in that behavior.
- Escape conditioning allows escape from an aversive stimulus.
- Avoidance conditioning allows avoidance of an aversive stimulus before it begins.
Punishment
- A punisher is any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a response when made contingent upon it.
- Punishment is the delivery of a punisher after a response.
- Positive punishment involves the delivery of an aversive stimulus after a behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
- Negative punishment involves the removal of a desirable stimulus after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior.
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
- Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.
Observational Learning
- Learning through observing the experiences of others, also known as social learning.
- Individuals may exhibit similar behavior after witnessing another person's behavior being reinforced or punished.
Bandura & Social Learning
- Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that children imitated aggressive behavior they observed in a model.
- Observing a model being rewarded increases the likelihood of imitating that behavior, while seeing the model punished would decrease it.
Bandura & Social Learning
- Factors contributing to a model's influence include reinforcement, similarity to the observer, and the complexity of the observed behavior.
Memory
- The ability to store and retrieve information.
- Dynamic and ever-changing, as current experiences influence past memories.
- Types of memory are influenced by different parts of the brain.
Memory
- Implicit memory: information is available without conscious effort (e.g., typing).
- Explicit memory: conscious effort is needed to recover information (e.g., testing).
- Procedural memory: memory for how to do things (e.g., making dinner).
- Declarative memory: recollection of facts and events (e.g., remembering a formula).
Information Processing Theory
- Sensory information is taken into the brain.
- Information is processed, analyzed, and stored for later use.
- Stored information forms the basis for behaviors and interactions.
Memory Processes
- Encoding: mental representation in memory based on information processing.
- Storage: retention of encoded information over time.
- Retrieval: recovery of stored information at a later time.
Sensory Memory
- Sensory register/Sensory memory briefly holds each sensory experience until it is processed.
- It allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations (approximately 0.5 seconds).
- The auditory version is called echoic memory.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
- STM is the mechanism for focusing cognitive resources on a small set of mental representations.
- STM involves preservation of recent experiences involving retrieval from long-term memory (LTM).
- Miller’s magic number: STM has a limited capacity of 7 +/- 2 items.
- Strategies for improving STM include rehearsal and chunking.
Working Memory
- Working memory (WM) is involved in tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension.
- WM is the foundation for the fluidity of thought and action.
- WM consists of three components:
- Phonological loop/phonological encoding: processing sounds and words.
- Visuospatial sketchpad/visual encoding: processing visual information.
- Central executive/motor encoding: coordinating and controlling the other components.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- LTM is the storehouse of experiences, events, information, skills, words, categories, rules, and judgments acquired from sensory and short-term memories.
- LTM involves the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time.
- LTM has an unlimited capacity, although not all information from working memory becomes a long-term memory.
Retrieval Cues
- Retrieval cues are stimuli that help search for a particular memory and can be generated internally or externally.
- Recall: reproduction of previously learned information.
- Recognition: realizing that a certain stimulus is one you have seen or heard before.
- Recognition cues are often stronger and more straightforward than recall cues.
Encoding and Retrieval Process
- Encoding specificity: memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding.
- Context-dependent memory: recall is influenced by the context and distinctiveness of the experience.
- Transfer-appropriate processing: memory is best when the type of processing at encoding transfers to processes at retrieval.
- Priming: the first experience of an item "primes" memory for later experiences and makes it more likely to be recalled.
Serial position effect
- Primacy effect: better memory for items at the beginning of a list.
- Recency effect: better memory for items at the end of a list.
Levels of Processing Theory
- Information processed at a deeper level is more likely to be retained.
- Structural encoding (shallow): focusing on the structural properties of words (how it looks).
- Phonological encoding (intermediary): focusing on the sound qualities of words.
- Semantic encoding (deepest): focusing on the meaning of the words.
Improving Memory
- Elaborative rehearsal: enhancing memory by elaborating on the material to be learned.
- Mnemonics: devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information.
Structures in LTM
- Concepts are mental representations of categories, based on family resemblance or prototypical features.
- Objects are categorized best at a basic level using a hierarchical representation of concepts.
- Example: piece of fruit, apple, Granny Smith.
- Schemas: frameworks or knowledge clusters about objects, people, and situations; generalizations used to interpret situations.
Using Concepts in Memory
- Prototypes: a representation of the average member of a category (e.g., a chair with a back and four legs).
- Exemplars: categorization based on comparison to examples in memory (dining chairs vs. lawn chairs).
Forgetting
- Interference: retrieval cues fail to point effectively to one specific memory.
- Proactive interference: past information makes it difficult to acquire new information.
- Retroactive interference: new information makes it difficult to remember old information.
What is Personality?
- A complex set of psychological qualities that influence an individual’s behaviors across different situations and over time.
- Described as being fluid and stable.
- Personality theories are used to understand, predict, and classify individual behaviors.
- Three common characteristics of personality:
- Individuals differ in their personalities.
- Behavior is caused by internal factors.
- Personality guides and directs our behavior.
Personality “Traits”
- Enduring qualities or attributes that predispose individuals to behave consistently across situations.
- Describe our typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, contributing to individual uniqueness.
- Traits are placed on a continuum.
Universal Traits?
-
Cattell's 16 Personality Factors (16PF):
- Identified source traits by surveying all words in the English language that described personality characteristics, resulting in 170 adjectives.
- Used Factor Analysis to create 16 broad factors on a continuum.
-
Eyesenck’s Dimensions of Extraversion and Neuroticism:
- Linked to Hippocrates' Humours.
- Reticular Formation: regulates arousal levels, influences approaches and avoidance behaviors.
- People fall anywhere in the circle between extraversion and introversion, and neuroticism and stability.
Extraversion-Introversion
- Driven by levels of cortical arousal in the brain.
- Introverts have higher base levels of activation, avoid further stimulation, and have low pain tolerance.
- Extroverts have lower base levels of activation, seek further stimulation, and have high pain tolerance.
Neuroticism-Stability
- Driven by the limbic system and autonomic nervous system.
- People with high neuroticism experience more labile and longer-lasting autonomic nervous system reactions.
Psychoticism
- Driven by hormonal function and neurotransmitters.
- Increased levels of androgens (testosterone) and reduced serotonin levels lead to heightened aggressiveness, impersonal attitudes, and antisocial behavior.
Big 5 Traits
- Costa and McCrae’s Big Five Model (NEO):
- Describes five broad traits that underlie all personality traits.
- Used today, with cross-cultural validation.
Five Factor Model Dimensions
- Openness to Experience
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
Evaluating Trait Theories
- Advantages:
- Describe individuals' personalities.
- Disadvantages:
- Do not explain how behavior is generated or how personality develops.
- Only portray a static view of personality.
- Need for a profile and change in traits.
Traits & Personality
-
Behavioral Genetics:
- Studies the heritability of traits by examining the degree to which traits and behavioral patterns are linked in identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ) twins.
- MZ twins have a higher correlation for similar traits (.50) compared to DZ twins.
-
Consistency Paradox/Person-Situation Controversy:
- If traits predict behavior and are stable, why is there a paradox of consistency in behavior across different situations?
- The answer lies in the interplay of state and traits, or nature and nurture.
Psychodynamic Theories
- Psychodynamic theories assume powerful unconscious inner forces shape personality and motivate behavior.
- Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: one of the most influential theories suggesting all behavior is motivated by psychic energy.
- Innate drives form tension systems.
- Two basic drives: self-preservation and sexual drive (eros).
Psychosexual Development
- Psychic Energy: manifests in forms of libido/eros (sexual desires) and thanatos (death instinct).
- Eros operates from birth and manifests in stages.
- Linked to pleasure in different erogenous zones and conflicts to be resolved (e.g., Oedipus complex).
- Too much gratification or frustration in any stage leads to fixation.
- Fixation is linked to adult personality characteristics.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
- Psychic Determinism: all mental and behavioral reactions (symptoms) are determined by earlier experiences.
- Emphasizes how unconscious processes shape behavior.
- Manifest Content: thoughts and feelings in awareness.
- Latent Content: concealed thoughts and memories, revealed through Freudian slips and dreams.
Structure of Personality
- ID:
- Storehouse of fundamental drives (unconscious, irrational, impulsive).
- No contact with the outer world.
- Operates on the Pleasure Principle.
- SUPEREGO:
- Storehouse of society's values, standards, and morals (conscience).
- In conflict with the ID.
- EGO:
- The reality-based aspect of self (acts as a referee between the ID and SUPEREGO).
- Conscious level, logical thinking.
- Operates on the Reality Principle.
Defense Mechanisms
- Ego Defense Mechanisms:
- Mental strategies used by the ego to defend itself against daily conflicts between ID impulses seeking expression and the SUPEREGO's demand to deny them.
- Repression: the primary defense mechanism, with additional defenses used when anxiety is present.
Evaluating Freud’s Theories
- Theories were criticized for:
- Vague and non-operationally defined concepts.
- Unable to reliably predict behavior, applied retrospectively.
- Developmental theory not based on studies with children.
- Minimal attention to traumatic experiences.
- Focus on clinical populations.
- Androcentric (male-centered) bias.
Humanistic Theories
- Key aspect: self-actualization.
- The constant striving to realize one's inherent potential.
- Motivation for behavior: comes from unique tendencies (innate and learned) to develop and change towards this goal (Rogers, Maslow, Horney).
- The goal is unique to each person.
- Self-actualization sometimes conflicts with the need for approval from self and others.
- Unconditional positive regard from others is critical.
- This helps us cope with interpersonal and intrapsychic defenses.
Humanistic Theories
- Holistic: explain people's separate acts in terms of their entire personalities.
- Dispositional: focus on innate qualities within a person that exert a major influence over the direction of behavior.
- Phenomenological: emphasize an individual's frame of reference and subjective view of reality rather than the observer.
Hierarchy of Needs
- Human needs are organized from most basic to personal and advanced needs (Maslow).
- Lower needs must be met first, allowing higher-level needs to be activated.
Humanistic Approach: Rogers
- Carl Rogers' Self Theory:
- Central concept: self-concept.
- Organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.
- In early life, children cannot separate themselves from their environment.
- Self-concept develops over time (the "Me" and the "not Me").
- Once established, individuals are motivated to maintain it.
- Self-Consistency: consistency among self-perceptions.
- Congruence: consistency between self-perceptions and experience.
Roger’s Self-Concept
- Self: the person I think I am.
- Ideal Self: the person I think I want to be.
- Congruence: consistencies between the two.
- Larger discrepancies between self-perception and experiences lead to more psychological problems.
- Individuals may deny or distort reality to maintain self-consistency.
- Healthy Adjustment/Fully Function Self: achieved when there is congruence.
- Karen Horney believed individuals require specific conditions to create a flourishing "real self".
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
- Theories were criticized for:
- Fuzzy concepts that are hard to research.
- Lack of focus on individual characteristics compared to human nature.
- Neglect of important environmental variables.
Social-Cognitive Theories
- These theories highlight the role of learning and environmental contingencies in personality.
- Personality is learned behavior.
- Behavior influences future learning experiences - specific circumstances are crucial for understanding why.
Julian Rotter and Expectancy Theory
- Expectancy: the likelihood of consequences given a specific behavior.
- Reward Value: the desirability or dread of consequences.
- Reinforcement: the impact of rewards or punishments on future behaviors.
Expectancy Theory
- Expectancy and Reinforcement: behavior is governed by two factors (Rotter).
- Expectancy: the likelihood of consequences given a specific behavior.
- Reinforcement: how much we desire or dread consequences.
- Intrinsic and Extrinsic Locus of Control
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Locus of Control
- Intrinsic Locus of Control: motivation comes from the inherent nature of the activity.
- People are motivated by the inherent nature of the activity, mastering something new, or the natural consequences of the activity.
- Affected by how praise is given - needs to be sincere, focused on effort, and not in comparison to others.
- Extrinsic Locus of Control: motivation is external to the activity and activated by external rewards or threats of punishment.
- Must be desired by the person to be a motivator.
- Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events.
Social-Cognitive Theories
-
Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Theory:
- Behavior is an interaction of persons and situations.
- Depends on person variables and situational variables, moving beyond traits.
- Comprised of five cognitive affective units:
- Encoding strategies: how we perceive and interpret situations.
- Expectancies and beliefs: our predictions about the consequences of our actions.
- Goals and values: what we desire to achieve.
- Affective responses: our emotions and feelings.
- Competencies and self-regulatory skills: our abilities to control our thoughts and behaviors.
-
Bandura also believed self-efficacy was central to personality.
- Self-efficacy is an individual's beliefs about their abilities and expectations about achieving success based on those abilities.
What Influences Self-Efficacy?
- Mastery Experiences: actual accomplishments.
- Vicarious Experience: observations of others' successes or failures.
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories
- Social-cognitive theories argue that personality is shaped by a complex interplay of individual factors, behavior, and the environment.
- Criticized for overlooking emotions and unconscious motivation.
- Also criticized for vaguely explaining the development of personal constructs and competencies.
- These theories are well-defined and researched.
- They emphasize the importance of understanding current behavior.
- Despite criticism, they have contributed significantly to psychology, education, and treatment.
Milgram Experiment Replication
- Jerry M. Burger replicated Milgram's study in 2009.
- The replication involved recruiting participants through advertisements in the Mercury News and Craigslist.
- The study found that 70% of participants had to be stopped from delivering a 150-volt shock.
- This replication highlighted the powerful influence of situational factors on behavior.
Social Psychology
- Explores how individuals are influenced by others.
- Key concepts include social influence, group dynamics, attribution theory, prejudice and discrimination, and interpersonal relationships.
Social Influence
- Refers to the process by which individuals are persuaded or influenced by others.
- Includes concepts like conformity, compliance, and obedience.
Group Dynamics
- Examines how individuals behave within groups.
- Topics include groupthink, polarization, and social loafing.
Attribution Theory
- Explains how individuals interpret the behavior of others.
- Differentiates between dispositional (internal) and situational (external) attributions.
Prejudice and Discrimination
- Investigates the causes, effects, and reduction strategies for prejudice and discrimination.
Interpersonal Relationships
- Studies factors that influence attraction, love, and attachment styles.
Personality
- Focuses on individual differences in patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Trait Theory
- Attempts to identify and measure specific personality traits.
- The Big Five personality traits include Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
Psychoanalytic Theory
- Developed by Sigmund Freud.
- Emphasizes the unconscious mind, the id, ego, and superego.
- Uses concepts like defense mechanisms to explain personality.
Humanistic Theory
- Emphasizes self-actualization and individual growth.
- Prominently recognized in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Personality Assessment
- Objective tests involve standardized assessments like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Big Five Inventory (BFI).
- Projective tests utilize ambiguous stimuli for individuals to project their thoughts and feelings. These include tests like the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Memory
- The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Types of Memory
- Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information for a short duration.
- Short-term Memory: Stores a limited quantity of information for a short period (usually 15-30 seconds).
- Long-term Memory: Holds information for an extended period, possibly for years.
- Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Involves conscious recall and can be further categorized into episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge) memories.
- Implicit (Non-declarative Memory): Includes unconscious skills and actions, known as procedural memories.
Key Processes in Memory
- Encoding: Converts information into a format suitable for storage.
- Storage: Maintains information over time.
- Retrieval: Accesses stored information when needed.
Learning
- A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Types of Learning
- Classical Conditioning: Learning through association, as exemplified by Pavlov's experiments with dogs.
- Operant Conditioning: Learning through reinforcement and punishment, demonstrated in Skinner's experiments.
- Observational Learning: Learning by observing others, famously illustrated in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.
Key Concepts in Learning
- Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves mental processes and can occur without direct experience, including insight learning.
Founders of Behaviorism
- John Watson founded the school of thought known as behaviorism.
- Ivan Pavlov conducted research on classical conditioning.
- B.F. Skinner is known for his work on operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
- A form of associative learning where learned associations are made between stimuli.
- Pavlov's experiments showed that dogs began to salivate in anticipation of food, even before the food was presented, after repeated exposure to stimuli associated with food.
Classical Conditioning Terminology
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a behavior.
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural behavior elicited by the UCS.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a response after being associated with the UCS.
- Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.
Key Points about Classical Conditioning
- It is a fundamental learning process that explains how we acquire associations between stimuli.
- The process involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits a response (UCR).
- It is applied in many areas, from understanding animal behavior to treating phobias and addiction.
- Classical conditioning is distinct from operant conditioning, which focuses on the consequences of behavior.
Memory
Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
- Implicit memory includes unconscious skills and actions acquired through experience without conscious effort.
- Explicit memory requires conscious effort to recall information.
Procedural vs. Declarative Memory
- Procedural memory is memory for how to do things.
- Declarative memory is recollection of facts and events.
Key Processes in Memory
- Encoding: Converts information into a format suitable for storage.
- Storage: Maintains information over time.
- Retrieval: Accesses stored information when needed.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
- STM is the mechanism for focusing cognitive resources on a small set of mental representations.
- STM involves the preservation of very recent experiences & brief retrieval of information from Long-Term Memory (LTM) when needed.
- STM capacity is limited (often referred to as Miller's magic number: 7 +/- 2 items).
Strategies for STM Improvement
- Rehearsal: Involves repeating information repetitively.
- Chunking: Involves grouping items based on similarity or other organizing principles.
Working Memory
- Involves resources for reasoning and language comprehension.
- Foundation for the fluidity of thought and action and integration of information.
- Three components:
- Phonological loop/phonological encoding
- Visuospatial sketchpad/visual encoding
- Central executive/motor encoding
Memory Tests
- Recall: Reproduction of information to which you were previously exposed.
- Recognition: Realization that a certain stimulus is one you have seen or heard before.
Types of Memories
- Episodic: Memories for personally experienced events.
- Semantic: General, categorical memories, not linked to specific episodes where memory was obtained (e.g., brushing your teeth).
Priming
- First experience of an item primes memory for later experiences, making it more likely to be recalled.
Serial Position Effect
- Primacy effect: Improved memory for items at the start of a list.
- Recency effect: Improved memory for items at the end of a list.
Encoding Levels
- Structural encoding: Paying attention to the structural properties of words & how it looks (shallow).
- Phonological (phonemic) encoding: Paying attention to the sound qualities of words (intermediate).
- Semantic encoding: Paying attention to the meaning of the words (deepest processing).
Elaborative Rehearsal
- Enhances memory by elaborating on the material to be learned.
Mnemonics
- Devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information.
Concepts
- Mental representations of the categories we form.
- Based on family resemblance or prototypical features.
- Objects are best categorized at a basic level (hierarchical representation of concepts).
Schemas
- Conceptual frameworks, or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations.
- Generalizations that can be applied to interpret situations.
Using Concepts in Memory
- Prototypes: Representation of the average member of a category (e.g., chair – a back, four legs).
- Exemplars: Categorization based on comparison to examples in memory (dining chairs vs.lawn chairs).
Interference
- Interference occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one specific memory.
- Proactive interference: Information previously acquired makes it more difficult to acquire new information.
- Retroactive interference: Acquisition of new information makes it difficult to remember old information.
Personality
- A complex set of psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic patterns of behaviour across different situations and over time.
- Personality is fluid versus stable.
- Personality theories seek to understand and predict behaviour.
- Three underlying characteristics:
- People differ and are consistent across situations.
- Behaviour is caused by internal factors, not environmental factors.
- Behaviour is guided and directed by internal factors.
Approaches to Classifying Personality
- Approaches classify people according to types or traits of personality.
Traits
- Enduring qualities or attributes that predispose individuals to behave consistently across situations.
- The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors (16PF)
- Identified source traits.
- Surveyed all words in the English language that described personal characteristics (170 adjectives).
- Used Factor Analysis to create 16 broad factors on a continuum.
Eysenck’s Dimensions
- Dimensions of extraversion and neuroticism are linked to Hippocrates’ humours.
- Reticular formation is linked to approach or avoidance behaviour.
- People fall anywhere in the circle.
Costa and McCrae & the Big Five (NEO)
- Five factor model describes broad traits that are argued to underlie all traits we have.
- Model is still used today and is cross-cultural.
- Advantages:
- Describe people’s personalities.
- Disadvantages:
- Don’t explain how behaviour is generated and personality develops.
- Only portray a static view of personality.
- We need a profile and change in traits.
Behavioural Genetics
- Examine the degree to which traits and behaviour patterns are linked with identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ) twins.
- Some studies predict MZ twins to be similar (0.50 correlation) – lower for DZ twins.
Psychodynamic Theories
- All psychodynamic theories share the assumption that powerful inner forces (our unconscious) shape personality and motivate behaviour.
- Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is one of the most influential.
- All behaviour was motivated by psychic energy.
- Innate drives form tension systems
- Two basic drives: self-preservation and sexual desires (libido)
- Eros operates from birth and manifests in stages.
- Too much gratification or too much frustration at any stage leads to fixation.
- Fixation is linked to adult personality characteristics.
Object Relations Theory
- People are motivated by a need to have relationships with others.
- Personality forms in the relationship between children and their caregivers.
- These relationships become working models/unconscious influence.
Psychic Determinism
- Assumption that all mental and behavioural reactions (symptoms) are determined by earlier experiences.
- Freud emphasized how unconscious processes can shape behaviour (iceberg concept).
- Manifest content – thoughts and feelings in awareness.
- Latent content – concealed thoughts and memories (revealed through Freudian slips and dreams).
Components of the Psyche:
- ID: Storehouse of fundamental drives (unconscious, irrational, and impulsive).
- Superego: Storehouse of society’s values, standards, and morals (our “conscience”).
- Ego: Reality-based aspect of self (referee between id and superego).
Ego Defence Mechanisms
- Mental strategies the ego uses to defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that seek expression and the superego’s demand to deny them.
- Repression is the primary defence mechanism.
Criticisms of Freud’s Theories
- Concepts are vague and not operationally defined.
- Doesn’t reliably predict behaviour, applied retrospectively.
- Developmental theory but not based on studies with children.
- Minimizes traumatic experiences and its interpretation as dreams.
- Looked at clinical populations.
- Androcentric (male-centred) bias.
Humanistic Theories
- Key aspect is self-actualization.
- Constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential.
- Motivation for behaviour comes from unique tendencies (innate and learned) to develop and change towards this goal (Rogers, Maslow, Horney).
- Self-actualization sometimes conflicts with the need for approval from self and others (role of unconditional positive regard from others).
- Positive regard helped us to cope with interpersonal and intrapsychic defences.
Carl Rogers Self Theory
- Central Concept = self-concept.
- Organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.
- Our early lives children cannot separate themselves from their environment.
- Self-concept develops over time (e.g., the Me and the not Me).
- Once established, tendency to maintain it (self-consistency).
- Consistency among ‘self-perceptions’.
- Congruence – consistency between self-perceptions and experience.
Social-Cognitive Theories
- Bandura stresses interaction of individual factors, behaviour, and environment (self reflection & self reactiveness, reciprocal determinism, Triarchic Reciprocal Causality).
- Must examine all components to understand personality.
Learning Theories
- Past theories have neglected to consider the role of learning and environmental contingencies in personality.
- Personality is learned behaviour.
Julian Rotter & Expectancy Theory
- Behaviour is motivated by the expectation of rewards.
- Expectancy – likelihood of consequences given behaviour.
- Reinforcement – how much we desire or dread consequences.
- Intrinsic – motivated by inherent nature of an activity (make oneself feel good).
- Extrinsic – motivation is external to the activity, not inherent (activated by external rewards).
Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Theory
- Behaviour is an interaction of persons and situations (goes beyond traits).
Criticisms of Social-Cognitive Theories
- Theories overlook emotion and the impact of unconscious motivation.
- Vague explanations of development of personal constructs and competencies.
- Only focus on current behaviour.
Conclusion
- Social-cognitive theories have led to major contributions to psychology, education, and treatments.
- Multiple perspectives are coming together, as well as being well defined and researched.
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Test your knowledge on classical conditioning concepts such as learning-performance distinction, acquisition, and spontaneous recovery with this quiz. Explore key terms and examples that illustrate the various principles of classical conditioning.