Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical and Operant Conditioning

• Classical and operant conditioning are two key ways to learn and shape behavior

Classical Conditioning

• A type of learning where you connect one thing with another, often without realizing it
• The learning happens through association
• In an example, if a dog hears a bell every time it gets food, it will eventually start to salivate just by hearing the bell, even if there's no food
• The bell (which originally did not make the dog salivate) becomes a signal for food
• The dog then reacts the same way it would to the food itself
• This type of learning is often called Pavlovian or associative learning

Operant Conditioning

• A type of learning based on the consequences of actions
• When behavior is followed by something good (a reward), that behavior is more likely to repeat
• When behavior is followed by something bad (a punishment), that behavior is less likely to occur again
• For example, if a dog sits and gets a treat, it's more likely to sit again in the future
• On the other hand, if a child is scolded for misbehaving, they're less likely to repeat that behavior

History of Psychology

• Psychology started with schools like structuralism and functionalism, which had some important ideas, but also big limitations
• Structuralism, led by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, tried to break down the mind into its basic parts by looking at things like sensations and feelings
• The method asking people to describe their own thoughts, was pretty unreliable and hard to repeat
• Functionalism, led by William James, focused on why the mind works the way it does, arguing that it evolved to help humans survive
• Functionalism was more practical, but it still relied on introspection (thinking about thoughts), which had the same issues
• These early ideas helped set the stage for behaviorism
• Behaviorism shifted the focus toward studying observable behaviors instead of mental processes that are hard to measure
• Behaviorism became popular because it focused on things that can be seen and measured

Classical Conditioning Example

• In classical conditioning, something neutral is associated with something that causes a natural reaction
• In an example, if a loud noise scares a child, and a balloon is always present when the noise happens, the child will eventually be scared of the balloon even when the noise doesn't happen
• This is because the child learned to associate the balloon with the scary noise
• This type of learning happens all around, from fears to habits

Behavioral Psychology Applications

• Behavioral psychology effectively addresses many issues
• Therapists utilize classical conditioning techniques like exposure therapy to help people unlearn fears such as phobias
• Operant conditioning is used to help people develop good behaviors and reduce unhelpful ones
• Addiction can be seen as a behavior that gets reinforced, so therapists use techniques to help people break the pattern of addiction
• Using rewards and breaking tasks into smaller steps can help people stay motivated and avoid procrastination

Limitations of Behavioral Psychology

• Focusing only on what can be seen (like actions) ignores important things, like thoughts, feelings, and motivations
• While lab experiments are controlled, real-life situations are more complicated, making it hard to apply lab findings to the real world
• Some methods used in behavioral therapy, like punishment, can raise ethical concerns; these methods should be used responsibly and with care

Conclusion

• Classical and operant conditioning are two main ways that people learns
• Classical conditioning is forming associations; operant conditioning is learning through consequences
• These methods can help people understand behavior and develop useful therapies
• Human behavior is complex, and consider different perspectives when studying the mind is important

Definitions

• Classical Conditioning involves learning by associating one thing with another
• For example, a dog hearing a bell every time it gets food may eventually start salivating just from the bell, even if there is no food
• Operant Conditioning involves learning based on the consequences of actions
• If you get rewarded for doing something, you're more likely to do it again
• If you get punished, you're less likely to do it again
• Stimulus is anything in your environment that can make you react, like a bell, a loud noise, or food
• Reflex is a natural, automatic reaction to something, like when a dog salivates when it sees food
• Neutral Stimulus is something causing no reaction at first, but one can be induced if paired with something that does react
• Reinforcer encourages a behavior to happen again like a treat for a dog when it sits
• Punisher discourages a behavior from happening again, such as getting in trouble for misbehaving
• Behaviorism is the way of studying psychology by focusing only on behaviors observed, and not on thoughts or feelings
• Structuralism involves a psychology approach that tried to break down the mind into smaller parts, by asking people to describe their thoughts and feelings, and was based on self-reflection, led by Wundt and Titchener
• Functionalism involves psychology approach focused on how mental processes help survive and adapt, and looked at the purpose behind behaviors, led by William James
• Introspection involves looking inside yourself and thinking about your thoughts and feelings, and it was used in structuralism
• Exposure Therapy involves therapy where someone faces their fears slowly and safely to avoid being scared
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a type of therapy that helps people change negative thoughts and behaviors to treat anxiety or depression
• Phobia is a strong fear of something specific, like spiders or heights, that can be learned through classical conditioning
• Addiction is being dependent on a behavior or substance, giving rewards that are hard to stop
• Motivation is the drive or desire to do something, like working hard to get a good grade or achieving a goal
• Self-Control is the ability to stop yourself from doing something, like resisting temptation
• Analytic Introspection is a method from structuralism where people look inside themselves and describe their thoughts when they see or hear something to study mental processes
• Modeling is learning by watching and copying, and doing what is observed from someone else
• Evolutionary Psychology is the idea that human behavior and thinking have evolved to help survival, like how reaction to danger or forming relationships
• Behavior Modification is a way of changing behaviors by rewarding good actions and punishing bad ones, and is often used therapy or to teach new skills
• Generalization is when reaction starts toward things that are similar to the original learning, like being afraid all balloons after being afraid of one
• Ethical Considerations are the idea that psychologists need to ensure fairness, respect, and no harm when controlling peoples behaviors
• Behaviorism is a way of studying psychology that only focuses on what people do, not on what's happening in their minds, and is based on behaviour learned from the environment
• The Mind-Body Problem analyzes how our mental thoughts and feelings ("mind") are connected to physical actions/behaviors ("body"), and asks whether study the mind, or focus on measurable behavior
• Stimulus-Response (S-R) Theory suggests that behavior corresponds to environment stimulus resulting in a response behavior, and as an example, hearing a loud noise jumps as response
• Cognitive Map describes and explains how to remember and understand the layout to remember the best way to school or the quickest route in a house
• Latent Learning happens when something is learned without rewards/punishments, and comes as a result of experience, like when you learn just by experience, and only later show that learned it
• Reciprocal Determinism suggests that behavior, thoughts, and environment affect each other. Actions can shift the surroundings, and surroundings shape the way of thinking and acting

Schools of Behaviorism

• Methodological Behaviorism: Proposed by John B. Watson, focusing only on what people do (actions/behaviors), and ignores the happenings inside the minds
  • Key Idea: Stimulus-Response (S-R) Theory where behavior results from an environmental stimulus
  • A Watson's experiment where Little Albert became scared by the loud noise and connected it to the white rat
• Neobehaviorism Theory: Builds on methodological behaviorism, but also include the internal events such as hunger, affects observable behavior
  • Key Idea: S-R Theory plus internal events, the internal states like being hungry, has an influence on external events
  • Example: An experiment in which you are more likely to smell food when hungry
• Cognitive Behaviorism Developed by Edward Tolman, who believes people don't solely respond to stimuli, but think about the world around them
  • Key Idea: Cognitive Map coupled with Latent Learning; people develop mental maps of their surroundings by using immediate rewards
  • Tolman rats learned layout of maze even when not rewarded, learning the processes later as latent learning Social Learning
• What Is It: Created by Albert Bandura, where people learn through observation and thinking

What Happened

• Watson showed a baby (Little Albert) a white rat and then a loud noise, which scared the baby. After a while, Albert was scared of the rat even without the noise
• Tolman put rats in a maze without rewarding them right away
• Children saw an adult act aggressively toward a Bobo

Examples of Behaviors (S-R)

• Loud noises (stimulus) caused fear (response), showing how behaviors can be connected to stimuli
• The rats seemed to learn the maze layout over time, even though they weren't getting a reward
• Children saw an adult act aggressively toward a Bobo

Key Terms and Definitions

• Behavioral Psychology: is the study of how the actions of animals is based on surroundings, Researchers look for behaviors like observing how someone acts and how strongly they do it
• Independent Variable: is what the researcher changes/controls to observe how it affects other things, like experimenting to understand cause
• Dependent Variable: is what the researcher measures in an experiment due to changes in the independent variable, like observing effects
• Overt Behavior: Actions that can be physically witnessed, like walking/talking
• Covert Behavior: is what cannot be witnessed like thinking/feeling
• Appetitive Stimuli: are likeable things that can prompt reactions, such like eating food when you're hungry
• Aversive Stimuli: are dislikeable things that can prompt reactions, such like feeling cold when there is a loud noise
• Establishing Operations: are conditions that can cause a prompt/stimuli, like food or a loud noise, to become more attractive or unpleasant
• Abolishing Operations: are conditions that prompt a stimuli to become less attractive, such like no longer being hungry after eating a big meal

Measuring Behavior:

• Behavioral psychology needs clear ways to measure behavior, such as determining the aspects of how often it happens, how strong, and how long it lasts. In a given methods: Rate of Response: In a certain amount of time, how often humans do one thing. (Ex: dog performing a task) Intensity: Level or strength of the behavior. (Ex. hitting a punching bag) Duration: Measuring an action for a time period. (Ex: dog barking) Speed: Behavior that occur fast. (EX: Runner completing a 100 meter dash) Number of Errors: Number of mistakes during a task. (Ex: Math Test)

Experimental Designs

• Group Experimental Designs that normally compare more than one group to see how they perform with differences in treatment
  • A study where one group is given lunch while the other isn't. Then, researchers measure how well students perform academically Independent Samples (Control Group): where people get randomly splitted into 2 groups, with/without treatment
  • An experiment to show whether or not 1 group gets extra tutoring, while the other doesn't. Factorial Design: Studying at more than one factor to see how they interact; Researchers look at how these factors affect test scores in a study Single-Subject Designs: Studying individuals, testing how an approach impacts them.
  • An experiment to record how often someone bites their nails before and after bad tasting nail polish.
• Reversal Design: in (ABA, ABAB design) where an experiment switches between treatmetns to observe the outcome. Can be also called Multiple Baseline Across Persons Design that focuses on clear cause

Stimuli

• Stimuli are all the things you want and Avoid
• Appetitive Stimuli involve humans making an action on things they want or find, such as food being offered with homework to be encouraged
• Aversive Stimuli: Humans makes actions to not be harmed, by causing an action that can hurt from the past, such as touching a stove.

Stimuli Changes

• Establishing Operations: Cause actions and reactions with stimuli like food with movies to become more appetizing
• Abolishing Operations: actions that are less appetizing because eating and over stuffing to not consume a dessert

Timing and Connection

• Contiguity: the space or amount of time where things can be combined
• Contingency: the ability when something is linked from one factor to another to be made easily by the dogs

Measured Conclusions

• Measure behaviors like how long they can last and researchers learn and see patterns
• The use of appetitive and aversive stimuli help us to understand why make things to be done efficiently

Behaviors

• Animals and People share behavioral relationships by doing measurable actions and reactions.
• Why Measure Importance? Allows psychology to measure and identify the variables that shift behavior .

Basic Steps

• Important measurements help to understand more clearly behaviors:
• Appétitive and Rewarding: the need to do better by giving yourself or others an action
• Aversion: The want to avoid any problems you're dealing with or could deal later, by getting an action and causing it to occur
• Contingency: To know to work a reward that has to put you or others to the time to be rewarded.

Why

• Psychologist need all concepts to relate and solve real life problems. They use the behavioral measurements
• Help students do better.
• Teach animals to do better.
• Find ways of changing and fixing bad habits.

Terms and Conditions

• A way to learn from conditions that seem normal , by connecting to something of reaction with yourself. By using training concepts to make reaction or to the way of to something more automatically. Made in to steps by understanding simple terms:

Before , during and after conditioning

• Before, the start has 2 elements; Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Anything or any action that can cause reaction. Example is when when you feel like you need to drool because your getting great food.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Any thing that cause any reaction. Example is when you play nothing and get no reaction.

The steps

During the steps, a pair of neutral stimulus (NS) occurs and is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) the brain links the two together.. By repeating. Example is when a metronome(NS) is played and great food (US) is presented; which the outcome results in Unconditioned (UR). And after; After conditioning: After the step, neutral stimulus becomes conditioned one, and the old ways of the condition are unconditioned (US).

Classical Conditioning Workload

• A feeling of an action that the mind accepts and reacts and makes it feel more responsive towards learning. Different Types Of Learning (depend stimulus);

Stimulus and Responding;

• Appetitive- Happens when the the body accepts things that would be considered as the best of the best
• Example A dog wags it tail because the fridge open
• Agressive (To avoid loud sounds). Example A balloon noise triggers flinching
• Exciting (Predicts the normal stimulus)..

Example lights flashes means that a meal with show • Inhibitory:This happens when the conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US)..

Temporal Conditioning and Timing

• The timing of the NS and US are very important

Types

Delayed; When NS is presented first, the result is overlapping US.. Trace; The ends and requires memories to maintain Simultaneous and backward..

• Important Aspects To Timing*

Significant and why study classical

Classical Conditioning (Unit 4)

• Associations are found through stimulus and result in learned behaviors.

Key Concpets:

• Acquisition: The Start of behavior where stimuli transform to a conditioned Stimuli by adding repeatedly with a unconditioned stimulus.
• Extinction: a behavior is more weaken when a old/ current behavior occurs, for Example, a dog eating and not begging for food. Spontaneous Recovery: the behavior shows like its going through an extinction after a rest period Generalization: A tendency or a need to respond to a old Stimuli

Discrimination: To show and differentiate some types of small Stimuli

Important Notes:

• Higher-order Conditioning: when stimuli becomes an CS and pairs with establishment CS
  • A soda endorsed by a celebrity becomes CS2. Blocking A CS to make some become something of the way things use to be with CS. A person already fearing dogs does not develop a fear of leashes. Applications- Helping phobias with therapy that can affect the spiders Marketing: A positive affect can make a great affect by listening to music and create a positive feeling.

Classical Limitations

• Experiments can trigger a negative result with emotions of ethical to fear and can have short/long affects. And behaviors may decline and come back over period over a time. Glossary • Acquisition- CS affects the US actions
• Blocking: Blocking what was taught and affects new actions.

Conditioning Notes (Unit 5)

• Conduct to show to how shape to affect as result to reinforcement and punishment.

Reinforcement:

• Reinforce better attitude by rewarding a great work by giving praise for doing homework.
• Remove the negative to reinforce positive/better affect.
• Punish can sometimes work to add new approach that is not related Positive: introduce a great action to reduce bad attitude. Negative: Remove any negative to decrease the main behaviors.

Terms

Terms def - Reinforce a Success by gaining better desire/action. To train parrot needs to follow a small set up steps by creating progress.

Schedules - FR show a set of numbers that can result in a reward from completing chores. Variable - rewards occur unpredictably Fixed - Receiving salary over time

• The workplace and parenting are used to enforce limitation with ethical reasons to reduce motivation

Key terms-

• Reward a great attitude.
• Strengthen actions by deleting any negative reaction.
• Shift with actions
• Great variable with unachievable great results

Reinforcements (Unit 6)

• Can come in as schedule, primary and secondary to create behavior that can come with learning.

Steps of Action

Def - Show great action

• The primary way to keep everything in motion.
• Can have a affect of gaining
• Can be useful
• Shows great action to get rewarded

Key Factors

• A number schedule - FR and to complete task
• Variables is not easy to get a reward and can not be determined.
• Reward can come as in over period set which is a Fixed .

Reinforcement and Limitations

• In this area. Students can be encouraged and to get Animal to have better behaviors. The down grade come with addicitons and in general to depend actions to perform better.

• Important things to remember The results has a need to be biologically and well rewarded with learning. Then a result will show in a set period.

Extinction and Notes (Unit 7)

• Is the ability to decrease and make old learnings fade, but controlling of that power that you can result. Then you can have behaviors be affected by the environmental and is the key for a more behavior modification.

Actions

• Def -A sudden increase to make more great efforts.
• Make a tantrum better when you give a candy rewards Things to recognize
• A good way to prevent bad habits Stimuli (SD)
• Make good actions by given cues
• Greenlight for a safe drive
• In general it shaped to to train animals from start to the great beginning (SA)
• a sign on what is the absence.
• A red light for stop
• Good to know as its establish Stimuli- the outcome of actions

What do learn from this ?

• People can recover, and the use of the education can allow students to create a response of their own. Can be limited cause not many know .

Notes - Unit 8

• Condition has more into detail with advanced learning in that partterns. In what makes you a complex .And what type of the pattern is the more to a greater affect. Which can result for the more to learn how to get a adaptation.

Notes in general:

• Suppress is where a the result of great ongoing with bad is the way to make sure it stops. The trigger comes as an impending
• The power comes to to get the ability of stopping that result, and to not take over. Conditional action- It allows to create time to give better response by having better cues. As a student test. And helps them to improve by being more aware..

Tips in Animal Training - A Delayed actions is really helpful to get animals to great training. Is what mental help can do for a therapist and to identify great triggers

• Limitations*
• Complexity - It triggers precise timing
• A great general action makes actions in results.
• Suppress comes a result of giving better actions.

Glossary Term of key

• Give more better action to supress
• Set up to get great result to make actions look in great
• Keep memory and action under way.