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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
What is the main premise of classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments?
What is the main premise of classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments?
- A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural response through repeated pairings with another stimulus. (correct)
- Behavior is shaped by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.
- Learning occurs through observation and imitation.
- Insight is the sudden realization of how to solve a problem.
In operant conditioning, what distinguishes a negative reinforcer from a punishment?
In operant conditioning, what distinguishes a negative reinforcer from a punishment?
- A negative reinforcer increases the likelihood of a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus, while punishment decreases it.
- Punishment increases desired behaviors, while negative reinforcement aims to eliminate undesired ones.
- Negative reinforcement always involves physical discomfort, while punishment relies on psychological distress.
- A negative reinforcer increases the likelihood of a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, while punishment decreases it. (correct)
How does stimulus discrimination differ from stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?
How does stimulus discrimination differ from stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?
- Stimulus discrimination involves responding similarly to different stimuli, while stimulus generalization involves distinguishing between them.
- Stimulus discrimination involves distinguishing between similar stimuli, while stimulus generalization involves responding similarly to them. (correct)
- Stimulus discrimination occurs before conditioning, while stimulus generalization occurs after conditioning.
- Stimulus discrimination is a conscious process, while stimulus generalization is unconscious.
How does the variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement influence behavior, and why is it effective?
How does the variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement influence behavior, and why is it effective?
What role does rehearsal play in the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory?
What role does rehearsal play in the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory?
How do schemas influence the way individuals interpret and remember new information?
How do schemas influence the way individuals interpret and remember new information?
In the context of memory, what is the role of retrieval cues, and how do they facilitate recall?
In the context of memory, what is the role of retrieval cues, and how do they facilitate recall?
What is the key distinction between explicit and implicit memory, and how do these types of memory affect behavior?
What is the key distinction between explicit and implicit memory, and how do these types of memory affect behavior?
How does the concept of 'levels of processing' explain the varying degrees of memory retention?
How does the concept of 'levels of processing' explain the varying degrees of memory retention?
How does functional fixedness inhibit problem-solving abilities?
How does functional fixedness inhibit problem-solving abilities?
What distinguishes divergent thinking from convergent thinking in problem-solving?
What distinguishes divergent thinking from convergent thinking in problem-solving?
How do prototypes influence our understanding and categorization of concepts?
How do prototypes influence our understanding and categorization of concepts?
What are the key components of emotional intelligence, and why is it important?
What are the key components of emotional intelligence, and why is it important?
How do fluid and crystallized intelligence differ from each other, and how do these differences manifest in problem-solving?
How do fluid and crystallized intelligence differ from each other, and how do these differences manifest in problem-solving?
What is the significance of the Flynn effect in the context of intelligence testing?
What is the significance of the Flynn effect in the context of intelligence testing?
How does homeostasis relate to motivation, particularly in the context of primary drives?
How does homeostasis relate to motivation, particularly in the context of primary drives?
What are the key differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how do they influence behavior?
What are the key differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how do they influence behavior?
According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, what must occur before an individual can pursue self-actualization?
According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, what must occur before an individual can pursue self-actualization?
What role do physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation play in the experience of emotion, according to the Schachter-Singer theory?
What role do physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation play in the experience of emotion, according to the Schachter-Singer theory?
How do facial feedback programs influence our emotional experience?
How do facial feedback programs influence our emotional experience?
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Learning where a neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a natural stimulus.
Extinction (in conditioning)
Extinction (in conditioning)
The diminishing of a conditioned response. Happens when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization
When a conditioned response to a stimulus also occurs with similar stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
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Reinforcer
Reinforcer
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Positive Reinforcer
Positive Reinforcer
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Negative Reinforcer
Negative Reinforcer
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Punishment
Punishment
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
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Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
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Partial Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
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Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
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Variable-Ratio Schedule
Variable-Ratio Schedule
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Shaping
Shaping
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Observational Learning
Observational Learning
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Memory
Memory
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Declarative Memory
Declarative Memory
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Procedural Memory
Procedural Memory
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Semantic Memory
Semantic Memory
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Episodic Memory
Episodic Memory
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Study Notes
Study Notes
Chapter 6: Learning
- Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, won a Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work on digestion
- He is primarily known for his experiments on basic learning processes
- Classical conditioning involves learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response
- Before conditioning: a bell doesn't cause salivation, meat does though
- During conditioning: the bell is rung before meat is given
- After conditioning: the bell alone causes salivation
- Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears
- Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus evoke the same response
- Stimulus discrimination: distinct stimuli evoke different responses, allowing differentiation between them
- Operant conditioning: voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened based on consequences
Thorndike and Skinner
- Thorndike's law of effect: responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
- Thorndike used a puzzle box to study how cats learn to press a paddle for food
- Skinner used a Skinner box to study operant conditioning in animals
- Animals such as rats and pigeons could learn to press or peck a lever in order to obtain food
Reinforcement and Schedules
- Reinforcers increase the probability of a preceding behavior
- Food is a reinforcer to increase behavior
- Negative reinforcers: unpleasant stimuli whose removal increases the probability of a behavior being repeated
- Positive reinforcers: stimuli added to the environment that increases the probability of a behavior
- Punishment: stimuli that decrease the probability of a behavior
- Reinforcement schedules dictate the pattern of frequency and timing to ensure behavior
- Continuous reinforcement: behavior is reinforced every time
- Partial reinforcement: behavior is only reinforced some of the time
- Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement after a specific number of responses
- Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement after an average number of responses
- Fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement after a fixed time period
- Variable-interval schedule: the time between reinforcements varies
- Shaping: teaching behavior by rewarding closer approximations of the desired behavior
Cognitive, Observational Learning, and Bandura
- Cognitive learning: focuses on thought processes during learning
- Latent learning: new behavior is learned but not demonstrated without incentive
- Observational learning: learning by watching others
- Albert Bandura: observational learning is a major part of human learning
Chapter 7: Memory
- Memory definition: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
- Sensory memory: the first storehouse of information
- Echoic memory: sensory memory for auditory information
- Short-term memory: store where information first has meaning. Retention length is short
- Chunk: a group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory
- Rehearsal: repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory and transfer it to long-term memory
- Working memory: holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing the data
- Declarative memory: factual information, sometimes called "explicit memory"
- Procedural memory: memory of skills and habits
- Semantic memory: general knowledge and facts about the world
- Episodic memory: memory for events in a particular time, place, or context
- Semantic network: clusters of interconnected information
- Engram: physical memory trace in the brain
- Hippocampus: part of the limbic system, helps consolidate memories, stabilizing them
- Retrieval cues: stimuli that aid in recalling information in long-term memory
Levels of Processing, Explicit and Implicit Memory
- Levels of processing: it emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
- Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information
- Implicit memory: memories that affect behavior without conscious awareness
- Flashbulb memories: vivid memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event
- Constructive processes: memories influenced by the meaning given to events
- Schemas: organized information that influences memory
- Repressed memories: shocking events pushed into the unconscious
- False memories: remembering events that did not happen or remembering inaccurately
- Autobiographical memory: recollections of our own life experiences
- Forgetting: helps prevent unwanted information from interfering with relevant retrieval
- Decay: loss of information in memory through nonuse
- Interference: information in memory disrupts the recall of other information in memory
- Ebbinghaus: rapid forgetting occurs shortly after exposure to new material
Amnesia and Thinking
- Amnesia: memory loss without other mental difficulties
- Korsakoff's syndrome: disease in long term alcoholics that includes memory loss
- Thinking definition: brain activity in which we mentally manipulate information
- Concepts: mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people
- Prototypes: typical examples of a concept
- Heuristic: thinking strategy that may lead to a solution
- Artificial intelligence: use of technology to imitate human thinking
- Insight: sudden awareness of relationships among elements
Problem Solving
- Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its most frequent use
- Mental set: tendency to solve problems in a certain way based on past experience
- Divergent thinking: generating multiple novel responses
- Convergent thinking: viewing a problem as having a single solution based on knowledge and logic
- Language: communication through symbols
- Phonemes: basic units of speech affecting meaning
- Syntax: rules for combining words and phrases
- Semantics: meaning of words and sentences
- Babbling: speechlike but meaningless sounds
- Chomsky: humans are prewired to learn language
- Linguistic relativity hypothesis: language shapes people's perception
- Whorf: contended Inuits had a rich vocabulary of snow because it was so relevant to their lives
- Animals communicate with one another in rudimentary ways, however have not been demonstrated to use language
Chapter 9: Intelligence
- Intelligence: the capacity to understand the world and use resources effectively
- G-factor: general factor underlying intelligence
- Fluid intelligence: ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve problems, and find patterns
- Crystallized intelligence: accumulation of knowledge and skills
- Gardner: argues for eight independent forms of intelligence
- Brain size is related to intelligence
- Emotional intelligence: accurately assess, evaluate, express, and regulate emotions
- Alfred Binet: developed the first intelligence test which was improved with age
- IQ: a measure of intelligence accounting for mental and chronological age
Intelligence Testing
- Various tests for intelligence, WAIS-IV, or WISC-V that measure verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory
- Validity: test measures what it should measure
- Reliability: a test's consistency in measuring
- Norms: standards to compare scores
- Intellectual disability: limitations both intellectually and socially before the age of 22
- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: related to mothers drinking
- Down syndrome: extra 21st chromosome
- Familial intellectual disability: intellectual disability with seemingly genetic problems
- Intellectually gifted: IQ scores greater than 130
- Culture fair IQ tests: doesn't discriminate against minorities
- Heritability: the influence of genes versus environment
- Flynn effect: IQ scores have increased over time
Chapter 10: Motivation
- Motivation: factors that direct and energize behavior
- Instincts: inborn patterns of behavior
- Drive reduction: lack of a need encourages an organism to satisfy the need
- Homeostasis: the body's tendency to maintain a steady state
- Arousal approaches: people try to maintain steady levels of stimulation
- Incentive approaches: desire to attain rewards
- Cognitive approaches: consider thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals
- Intrinsic motivation: enjoyment for its own sake
- Extrinsic motivation: desire for money etc. as a reward
- Maslow's hierarchy: Physiological needs, Safety needs, Love and belongingness, Esteem, Self-actualization
- Deci and Ryan: people have needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness
- Obesity: body weight is more than 20% above person average weight
- Weight set point: the body strives to maintain a specific level
- Lateral hypothalamus: eating behavior related to it
- Insulin: leads to the body to store excess sugar in the blood as fats and carbohydrates
- Ghrelin: communicates hunger
- Roots of obesity: can be the number of fat cells or increasing the size of existing fat cells
Eating Disorders and Emotion
- Eating disorders: disability in young women
- Anorexia: refusing to eat to look skinny. 10% literally starve to death
- Bulimia: binging of lots of food but throwing it all up
- Needs of achievement: person's desire to strive for achievements
- Need of affiliation: maintaining relationships with others
- Need of power: seek to make impacts on others
- Emotion: feelings with physiological and cognitive elements that influence behavior
- Emotions: Preparing for action, shaping our behavior, helping us interact
- James-Lange: experience emotions as a result of physiological changes
- Cannon-Bard: both physiological arousal and experience are produced simultaneously
- Schachter-Singer: identify emotion by observing environment
- Facial affect program: present at birth and shows appropriate facial expressions depending on environment
- Facial feedback programs: facial expressions help regulate emotions
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