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Introduction to Drones

• Drones, known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or uncrewed aerial vehicles, are aircraft that operate without a human pilot, crew, or passengers.
• UAVs are part of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), comprising a ground-based controller and a communication system.
• UAV flights can be operated remotely by human operators as remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) or involve different levels of autonomy, including autopilot aid, to fully autonomous aircraft without human interaction.
• Drones were first created in the twentieth century for military purposes.
• Enhancements in control and affordability have led to broader usage in the 21st century, spanning aerial photography, product delivery, agricultural applications, security, and infrastructure inspections.

Drone Components

• Critical parts are categorized as hardware, software, and mechanical components.
• Optimal performance requires striking the right balance among these three aspects.

Hardware

• Serves as the electrical element inside the drone system.
• It is constructed as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).
• System on a Chip (SOC) rests on multi-layer PCB. Subsystems are linked using copper tracks within PCB or separate wires.

SOC (System On Chip)

• A miniature computer on a chip.
• Integrates digital, analog, mixed signal, and radio frequency devices onto one chip which are used for mobile or embedded systems.
• SOCs exist as microcontroller-based, microprocessor-based, and application-specific, the latter proving more efficient and cost-effective than multi-chip designs by using less energy.
• SOC bottom side is fabricated using PCB traces that establish subsystem connections.
• Typically integrates digital, analog, and mixed signal devices.
• Is assembled with silicon chips and capacitors on the top side and pins on the bottom, which can be attached to a printed circuit board (PCB).

Subsystems

• These can be electrical technologies.
• Needed to execute an intended function and grouped by computer design input, output, storage, and communication components
• Touchscreens, keyboards, mice, microphones, cameras, sensors, and remote controllers are commonly used as inputs.
• Displays, speakers, motors, fans, and LEDs serve as outputs.
• Storage options include memory, flash memory, hard drives, optical drives, solid-state drives, and secure digital memory.
• Communication is supported through wired LAN, wireless LAN, cellular networks (3G/4G/LTE), GPS, and USB.
• Surveillance drones use a camera module, wireless module (WiFi/3G/4G), along with memory, internal storage units, sensors, and flight controllers.

Software

• Used in a drone system is categorized into four types
• Firmware
• OS and drivers
• Sensing, navigation, and control
• Application-specific components.

Mechanical Systems

• This includes a drone's form factor, housing enclosures, and industrial design, with a focus on both function and aesthetics.
• The mechanical design includes numerous parts joined by electrical parts through thermal/mechanical connections.
• An X or H-frame quadcopter with four servo motor/propeller units, and plastic-encased PCBA, remains the most common build.
• The frame supports elements like propellers, motors, landing gear and body, flight controllers, motor drivers, alongside the battery.

Drone History

• US military interest in UAVs grew with technology miniaturization and maturation in the 1980s-1990s.
• The U.S. DoD contracted AAI Corporation with Israeli company Malat in the 1990s.
• AAI and Malat developed AAI Pioneer UAV, later used during the Gulf War.
• UAVs offered cheaper, safer fighting capability.
• Early models were mainly for surveillance.
• Later models, such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, had armaments and Hellfire missiles.
• CAPECON, an EU project, aimed for UAV development from May 2002 to December 2005.
• The USAF employed 7,494 UAVs by 2012 and one in three USAF aircraft.
• At least 50 countries were using UAVs by 2013 and countries, such as China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan and Turkey, created their own models
• Smart technologies and electrical power system improvements led to consumer drone use.
• Hobby quadcopters in 2021 show popularity of radio-controlled models, however, commercial UAV use is restricted by both autonomy challenges and regulations mandating "line-of-sight" contact with a pilot.

Drone Classification

• As with other aircraft, this can be categorized by design, weight, engine, flight altitude, autonomy level, operational use and more
• Weight-based categories ranges from nano drones (up to 250g) to micro air vehicles (MAVs: 250g-2kg), SUAVs (2-25kg, medium drones (25-150kg) and heavy drones (over 150kg).
• Classification happens based on level of autonomy.
• ICAO designates planes that are remote piloted and fully autonomous.
• Some aircraft can fly manned/unmanned, identified as OPVs (Optionally Piloted UAVs).
• Altitude-based classifications that were used at industry events, such as Unmanned Systems forum.
• Hand-held drones reach 2,000ft (600m) with 2km range. Close range units operate at 5,000ft (1,500m) to a distance of 10km, and tactical types fly 18,000ft (5,500m).
• NATO-spec planes travel 10,000ft (3,000m) as much as 50km.
• MALE drones, defined as "medium-altitude, long endurance", are effective up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and possess a 200 km+ range. HALE, "high altitude, long endurance" craft, reach beyond 30,000 ft to an infinite range. Hypersonic versions fly at Mach 1-5 as well as in excess of Mach 5, around 50,000ft altitudes (15,200m).
• Orbital drones that can be deployed in low Earth orbit as well as CIS Lunar transfer types.
• Based on Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance Systems (CACGS) and also U.S. Military’s unmanned aerial systems (UAS).

Drone Types

• Mission dictates how drones are grouped.

Combat Drones

• Also known as Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAV) and used in areas with threats.
• Equipped with missiles and resemble traditional aircraft.

Logistics Drones

• Used to distribute cargo and ease the delivery of goods.

Civil Drones

• Designed for general operations, such as agricultural tracking, data retrieval, and photography.

Reconnaissance Drones

• Also known as mission-control models which operate autonomously, return after collecting field intel.

Target and Decoy Drones

• Similiar to combat drones, however these supply simulation for high attack missions and come with weaponry.

Research and Development Drones

• Used primarily to gather data from the air, monitor weather states, and facillitate internet access.

Wing Types

• Drones may be defined by their wing design with classifications that include fixed wing, single rotor, and multirotor types.
• Fixed-wing drones come equipped with stable wings akin to standard airplanes. Only consume one motor and fly at greater heights with prolonged battery uptime.
• Fixed wing drones break more frequently. Also need considerable aeronautics experience and training and require air pressure adaptation for shifting direction.
• Single rotor variants are like helicopters. These single rotor drones hover up and down through adjustments in direction.
• Multi-rotor aircrafts, including helicopters, can be classified according to their rotor numbers such as tricopters(three rotor propeller), quadcopters(four), hexacopters(six), and octocopters(eight).
• Quadcopter drones are easy to control
• Multi-rotor designs consume significant power from the multiple motors.

Multirotor Drone Types

• Ready to Fly (RTF) versions are ready for immediate use and beginner-friendly, not needing further complex set-up.
• Bind N Fly (BNF) versions don't include a transmitter, allowing flyers to pair models having a suitable transmitter.
• Almost Ready to Fly (ARF) editions come with what is needed; some installation is needed and may require the obtaining of missing components for flight operation.

Propeller Material

• Propellers utilize Bernoulli's principle to convert rotational motion into thrust.
• Factors include the dimensions, pitch type, quantity of blades, and substances.
• Superior in rigidity, performance, and vibration reduction during rotation.

Drone Body Configuration

• Includes propeller, motor, enclosure, X-frame, motherboard, CPU, heat spreader, camera module and daughter board .
• The propeller gives thrust using angled blades attached to the revolving motor shaft.
• Serves a protective body to the drone.
• This structure gives fasteners and ties with symmetrical design for balanced flight.
• Mylar insulation is set between the X-frame and PCBA which offers thermal safety.
• The core structure is built on a PCB motherboard that electrically connects all parts and houses the SOC CPU for processing.
• Shielding, in conjunction with thermal interface materials (TIMs), cools hardware and decreases disturbances through ground connections. This also guarantees regulated expansion.
• The device has a wide FOV due to its mounting location on the drone bottom as well as integrated ISPs connecting to the SOC.
• Other parts that may include an additional PCB daughter board are also joined using board interconnections.
• Flexible PCBs connect complex systems.

Software Architecture

• Provides functionality and uses hardware capabilities.
• Used for hardware development depending on availability along with simulators that use functional models.
• Software needed on a Drone System
• Firmware components
• Operating systems and drivers. Supplied by OS vendors and comes in lots of customizations in order to determine real-time function.
• Generic device drivers which are part of the OS alongside the drivers that vendor supplies that are device specific.

Logistical and Operational Management

• Important particularly for high volume production in commercial applications with ODM/OEM coordination between material designers/vendors.

Management Tasks

• Involve monitoring project timelines, stakeholder interactions, and external/internal relationships.

Bills Of Materials

• The supply chain guarantees BOM and EBOM components used are easily located when assembling the PCB and its related units to make sure products can easily be customized with the material available from specific third parties.

Drone Dynamics and Stability

Drone physics are critical for pilots to effectively fly and manage air currents acting on the drone.

Torque

• Quadcopters have two pairs of propellers, which rotate in clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
• Motor speed is independently managed to regulate mobility.
• Think regarding thrust as something that suddenly propulses
• Also need to account for torque.
• Torque gives fixed axis rotation achieved through force and axis distance.

Thrust Definitions

• Forward propelling mechanism in physical systems.
• Mathematically, thrust can be calculated by multiplying both pressure and area.

Forces

• Small control boxes which have sensors manage the necessary forces along with propeller speed and orientation.
• Gyroscope and accelerometer combine to create orientation data
• Radio control receiver reports RC transmitter message and drives microcontroller; ESCs then regulate speed as needed

Hover, Ascent, and Decent Dynamics

• Weight must equal upward forces on quadcopter.
• This happens with zero movement and using the equation mg = F1 + F2 + F3 +F4.
• Lift, expressed as D, is the propeller force as a function of weight.
• Motion can then be calculated as (D = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 - mg).
• Thrust must be in relation to weight, which uses the force being the formula D = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 – mg > 0, for an accurate climb.

Propeller Movements

• Opposite propeller motion can occur in a plane for the yaw by creating reactions. If all motions are stable then it stops yaw, however dissimilar patterns create movement.
• Direction measured in y-axis rotation that moves rotation in the roll through thrust alterations opposite propellers.

Drone Frames

• Is needed to mount the electronics.
• Needs consideration for weight, number of motors/propellers, as well as electronic components that vary between quadcopters/gliders. Ready-made ones offer simpler development versus building yourself.
• Structural considerations are extremely important because without being able to install the motors, it becomes unstable.
• Common types are carbon fiber or alternatives that are lighter, like acrylic.
• Essential are double-checking screw threads in whatever you are mounting.

System Specifications

• Additional features can be implemented like a quad core CPU, 2 GB of RAM, and high resolution camera.
• Communication is done with GSM CDMA / HSPA / EVDO / LTE, and stereo for speakers and the presence of vibration.

Equilibrium States

• Stability is achieved when system corrects from disturbances which is known as returning to equilibrium. Dynamic adjustments guarantee a static state.

Equilibrium Forces

• Forces are applied by ensuring that a force in motion has to match the engine ability. Angular velocity can be measured with (T = Ka × ω2).

Motor Types

• Electrical gears, mostly brushless DCs, combine to thrust the drone's power against the air which has speed from using the speed from the speed controllers.
• Need consistent adjustment for forward/backward directions on the control panel in order to make sure it is not unstable.

Sensors in Drones

• Sensors detect and measure physical properties including force, stress, and luminosity, changing those states to electricity. Depending on their properties, signal conditioning may be necessary to improve output.
• Microphone signals can be strengthened though amplifiers by determining voltage thresholds for individual functions..
• Sensors all require assigned voltages that guarantee effectiveness.

Accelerometers

• Assess movement and tilt which uses gravity to gauge location changes.

Drone Stabilization

• IMU measures the orientation of rotation that guarantees control.
• Can be done using 3-axis gyroscopes, pressure sensors, temperature sensors, compasses.

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)

• Assesses structure vibration and motion, resulting in an electrical charge used to measure the forces that the crystal undergoes from movement.
• Digital models are set-up by analog configurations which turn electrical signals into mechanical events.

Piezoelectric Accelerometers

• Determine velocity and orientation of crystal that measure stress for measurement, leading to different versions like high impedance or low impedance modules that have voltage outputs appropriate for data tracking.

Barometers

• Measure atmospheric pressure which is what determines the air that comes. Also helps weather conditions.

Mercury barometers

• Are designed having gas tubes. They have mercury, as the level changes it gives vacuum through the cylinder.

Gyro Sensors

• Gauges angular rates, also known as angular velocity to rotate.

Gyroscope Sensors

• Combine with accelerometers to produce enhanced motion tracking. This allows an operator to calculate pitch, roll, and yaw across a range. Angular movement makes the crystal act as a sensor that releases directional force needed to sustain drive arms.
• Versatile tools used in aviation and electronics.
• Can provide angular velocity, image adjustments and control behavior from gesture recognition and gesture interfaces.

Magnetometer

• These can be integrated in spacecraft or use a compass with a ferromagnet with the magnetic axis of the north.

Drone Sensors

• Aid well-designed UAV operations as well as generate life and support navigation to continue gathering intel.

Gyroscopes

• Regulate low, standard navigation across aircraft. Uses axes of rotation frames with measurement or preservation of angular momentum known as a PID for integration that delivers constant hovers.

Barometers

• Assesses altitude through shifts in environmental forces through calibration at sea level.

Accelerometers

• Measure position changes together through gyroscopes to better sense movements, which may come with GPS technology and piezoelectric mechanisms.

GPS

• This guides the PID controller that is outfitted to control a drone. Allows it to follow GPS satellites.
• Signals are used to triangulate satellite source times, which measure place from its signal strengths, and allow GPS to determine drone trajectories appropriately.

Magnetometors (Magnetic Fields)

• The direction can always adjust even as they measure magnetic flow that gives course awareness. This enables the drone to adapt its path accordingly, despite some disturbances.

Rangefinders

• Track position to the ground utilizing sonar with laser alternatives that are also accurate under greater ground control.

A Inertial Measurement Unit

• Made of combined sensor sets IMU provides navigation with on course fixes which does this with error checks after the period of calibration.

Obstacle Avoidance

• Higher end drones have such checks. This uses ultrasonic, stereoscopic and infrared systems.

Distant Sensors

• Use electric mechanisms that convert sound to electromagnetic signals through ultrasound.

Distance Measurements

• Need timer measurement where the sensor produces a short burst of measure that may be analog with analog clocks.
• They can calculate solid, and liquid states because they go long distances of limited space.

Time of Flight (ToF) Sensors

• They can measure the environment based on an objects volume plus, have capacity for gesture responsiveness from object detection.

ToF in Optics

• It's good for greater scope, readings than ultrasound, which allows smaller equipment with higher efficacy for range and power.

Thermal and Heat Sensors

• They are of two types. Contact which include thermometers, thermocouples, thermostats, and non-contact which are thermal and imaging to guarantee safe thermal regulation.
• They can be thermal-imaging and operate remote operation on power equipment.

Chemical Sensors

• Are used to identify changes including composition and environmental detection to check analyte volumes.

Chemical Sensors are used to monitor analytes

• This can happen on the surface of electricity, bio and acoustic material is the goal.

Sensor Testing

• The first thing that should be done by a engineer is see what electrical output there is by what data and what scopes it has.
• The gear should have universal parts that use systems to find angles between the sensor and the station that makes readings for the rig.

Sensor Test Procedures

• Use of zero and a 360 degree turn. The steps need different parts when they run.

Static Tests

• Zero input bias is for gyros, this occurs at any point during motion. For accelerometers, this is the same test, but the sensitive axis should be on any spot.

Dynamic Tests

• Assesses non-linearity, sensitivity, scale variety and alignment of the axis is. For all to get assessed over conditions such as temperature.
• Usually use a table at all which has width with vibration devices.

Gliding Drones

• Gliders, lift, drag, airfoils, include incidence and three axis motions. The load is related to our self made angle's to form gliding angles.
• Lift is when the drag component parallels against air on something which pushes the air along to move.

Airfoils

• The form wing creates. The drag factor, which also increases the amount of angle that is known.

Aeronautical Lift

• Lift helps maintain an upward swing that creates increased lift along aircraft wings.

Wing Types

• Symmetrical, and have limited lift as their bottom and top are nearly the same. And it is non-symmetrical which isn't identical.
• Angles of attack can be shown on chordlines.
• High aspect indicates long, narrow wings. And vice versa for low.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio

• Aircraft wings is for the generation of air. Delivering minimal drag is necessary when a craft has to have set lift or great efficiency to reach flight and climb requirements.
• L/D can scale by air velocity, where it is written CD plus CL, which decreases thrust depending on an equal rate.
• Drag = coefficient x density x velocity squared x reference area /two. These wingspan and wetted points with skin friction are key.

The forward and backward components that lead into kinetic state are thrust

• Air and engine force determine the weight with that is the rocket force