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What is the primary development stage during which major organs begin to form?
Which structure serves as a protective buffer for the fetus, filled with fluid?
What major developmental process refers to the intentional death of certain cells?
At what point in prenatal development can the fetus begin to hear external noises?
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Which of the following best describes cephalocaudal development?
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What behavior of the fetus aids in the maturation of its digestive system?
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How do newborns demonstrate their ability to recognize sounds from the womb?
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What develops first in cephalocaudal development?
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What defines aneuploidy in chromosomes?
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Which process increases genetic variability during meiosis?
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How many combinations are possible through random assortment of chromosomes in sperm and egg?
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What is a characteristic of traits resulting from selective breeding in animals?
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Which of the following best explains the relationship between genotype and phenotype?
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What does the phenotype of an organism refer to?
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Which type of allele is expressed in the presence of a dominant allele?
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What is codominance in genetics?
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How does the environment influence gene expression according to epigenetics?
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Which of the following is an example of a sex-linked trait?
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What concept explains how a child’s environment can affect their phenotype?
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Which statement aligns with Darwin's theory of evolution?
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Which one of the following best describes polygenic inheritance?
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Which of the following best describes the concept of continuity in child development?
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Which of the following is NOT an example of sociocultural influence in child development?
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Which factor is part of the historical influence on child development?
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What does the nature vs. nurture debate primarily discuss?
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Which of the following best exemplifies the concept of discontinuity in development?
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What aspect of development does economic influence primarily address?
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Which of the following is a key component of sociocultural influences in child development?
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Which term best describes the impact of cultural factors on child development?
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What does the norm of reaction describe?
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Why are twin studies particularly useful in the study of genetics?
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What does heritability indicate?
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What is a limitation of heritability estimates?
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Which statement accurately differentiates sensation from perception?
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What does the preferential looking method indicate about infant perception?
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What does habituation reveal about infant color perception?
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What is indicated by the scanning patterns of infants in face perception studies?
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Study Notes
Child Development Themes
- Nature vs Nurture: How much of who we are is due to genetics (nature) and how much is due to our environmental experiences (nurture)?
- Continuity vs Discontinuity: Do we develop in a gradual, continuous way (like a tree growing) or are there big, distinct stages (like a caterpillar transforming into a butterfly)?
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Sociocultural Influence: The influence of social, physical, cultural, historical, and economic factors on our development.
- Social: Parents, siblings, teachers, peers, etc.
- Physical: Home, daycare, school, urban vs rural settings.
- Cultural: Language, values, traditions, attitudes/beliefs, laws, technology, etc.
- Historical: Shapes all other influences, e.g., traditional practices, policies, economy, etc.
- Economic: National, societal, and family wealth play a role.
Prenatal Development Stages
- Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks; Contains the fertilized egg.
- Embryo: 3-8 weeks; Cell differentiation begins and major organs emerge (spinal cord forms by 22 days, placenta forms for nutrient exchange between fetus and mother, umbilical cord connects fetus to placenta).
- Fetus: 9 weeks to birth; All major organs finish development. Protection from toxins and infections is provided by the placental membrane and amniotic sac (filled with fluid where the fetus floats). Testosterone production determines sex around 8 weeks. The fetus is active, and most movements present at birth develop during this stage.
Cell Development
- Cell Division: The process of creating new cells.
- Cell Migration: Newly formed cells move to their appropriate positions within the body.
- Cell Differentiation: Cells specialize into different types, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, etc.
- Apoptosis: Programmed cell death. This removes unnecessary cells and sculpts body parts.
Prenatal Development Principles
- Cephalocaudal Development: Development starts at the head and progresses downward towards the feet. For example, the head develops first, followed by the arms, then legs.
Senses during Prenatal Development
- Taste: Fetal taste preferences can be influenced by what the mother consumes, such as carrots, which can make newborns prefer that flavor after birth.
- Smell: Fetuses can smell their own amniotic fluid and distinguish their mother's scent.
- Hearing: Fetuses respond to external noises by 6 months, and can even recognize rhymes read to them in utero. Newborns cry in their native language.
The Active Child
- Fetal Behavior Impacts Development: The fetus is active during development, and their movements contribute to organ development and the maturation of different systems. This shows how the child is actively involved in their own development.
Genetics
- Chromosomes: The packages carrying genetic material (DNA), which contains genes.
- Genes: Units of heredity that influence specific traits. Humans have 46 chromosomes with 30,000 genes.
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Aneuploidy: An abnormal number of chromosomes.
- Trisomy: An extra chromosome.
- Monosomy: A missing chromosome.
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
- Mitosis: Cell division for normal growth and repair.
- Meiosis: Cell division for reproduction to create gametes (sex cells).
Genetic Variability
- Crossover (Recombination) in Meiosis: Chromosomes separate and then exchange segments, leading to increased genetic diversity.
- Random Mutations: Alterations in gene sequences caused by random or environmental factors.
- Random Assortment of Chromosomes: The shuffling of chromosome pairs during gamete formation leads to 64 trillion possible combinations.
Selective Breeding in Animal Studies
- Provides evidence for strong genetic influence on psychological traits in animals.
- Example: Sheep dogs have an innate herding instinct due to selective breeding over generations.
Genotype & Phenotype
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, including all the genes inherited from parents.
- Phenotype: The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, influenced by both genotype and environment.
- Environment: Plays a role in gene expression through epigenetics. The environment can alter how genes are expressed, influencing phenotypes.
Types of Gene Expression
- Alleles: Different forms of a gene influencing trait expression.
- Dominant Allele: The allele expressed if present, regardless of the other allele.
- Recessive Allele: Only expressed if both alleles are recessive.
- Sex-Linked Traits: Alleles on sex chromosomes, mainly the X chromosome, which typically affects males more severely because they only have one X.
- Codominance: Two dominant alleles of a single gene are both expressed or blended.
- Gene Expression Variation: Expression can vary depending on whether the gene comes from the mother or father.
- Pleiotropy: A single gene can influence multiple traits.
- Polygenic inheritance: Multiple genes contribute to a single trait (e.g., height, intelligence).
Epigenetics
- Epigenome: Chemical modifications to the genome influenced by the environment.
- Rewrites Understanding of Genes & Environment: Challenges the idea that genes alone determine our traits. The environment can alter gene expression and, in turn, influence phenotype.
- Transgenerational Effects: Epigenetic modifications can be passed on to future generations.
Norm of Reaction
- Norm of Reaction: The range of potential phenotypes that can result from a single genotype across different environments.
- Impact of Environment: Shows that a genotype alone doesn't determine the outcome in the specific environment. The same genotype can lead to different phenotypes depending on environmental influences.
Heritability
- Heritability: The proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic influences in a population.
- High Heritability: Suggests a large degree of genetic influence on the trait (e.g., life expectancy, certain personality traits).
- Low Heritability: Suggests a greater impact from environmental factors on the trait.
Limitations of Heritability Estimates
- Heritability estimates are specific to a population and cannot be applied to individuals.
- Heritability does not tell us the cause of differences between individuals.
- Heritability doesn't imply genetic determinism; both genes and environment play a role.
- Selective breeding studies can be influenced by environmental factors.
Perception
- Sensation: The basic processing of sensory information from the external world by sensory receptors.
- Perception: The interpretation and organization of sensory information to create meaning.
Research Methods to Study Perception
- Habituation: Repeated exposure to a stimulus until the infant shows a decrease in attention to it.
- Dishabituation: Recovery of attention to a new stimulus or a change in the familiar stimulus.
- Preferential Looking: Measures infants' preference for looking at one stimulus over another, indicating that they can perceive a difference between the stimuli.
Face Perception
- Infant face scanning patterns: Infants are drawn to faces and scan them in a distinctive manner, focusing on the eyes and mouth.
- Sensitivity to facial features: Infants are particularly sensitive to facial patterns, especially those related to expression and emotion.
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Description
Explore the fascinating aspects of child development, including the nature vs nurture debate, continuity vs discontinuity in growth, and the various sociocultural influences. Additionally, learn about the stages of prenatal development, from zygote to embryo. This quiz will deepen your understanding of the multifaceted processes involved in human development.
