DEV2004 - Chapter 1 Child Development Concepts & Theories

Questions and Answers

What does Developmental Psychology primarily focus on?

The relationship between genetics and personality

Changes and consistencies in human behavior across a lifespan (correct)

The physiological changes during aging

The impact of technology on development

What stage of life was previously considered the endpoint of development?

Infancy

Late adulthood

Adolescence

Adulthood at age 25 (correct)

What recent trend has emerged regarding research in developmental psychology?

Growing attention to adulthood and its developments (correct)

Complete focus on aging and late adulthood

Neglect of psychosocial aspects of development

Increased focus on childhood development over adulthood

Which of the following questions do developmental psychologists investigate?

Is development gradual or does it occur in stages? Signup and view all the answers

Which population's entry into late adulthood has changed the focus of research in Developmental Psychology?

Baby boomers Signup and view all the answers

What is a misconception about early childhood experiences mentioned in the study of Developmental Psychology?

They define the entirety of an individual's personal development. Signup and view all the answers

How is adulthood characterized in contemporary understandings of Developmental Psychology?

As a time marked by considerable cognitive, social, and psychological growth Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of cognitive development is debated among developmental psychologists?

Whether knowledge is strictly innate or acquired through experience Signup and view all the answers

What is biological age primarily concerned with?

The rate at which the body is aging Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does not influence biological age?

Cognitive capacity Signup and view all the answers

How is social age defined?

Cultural and societal norms expectations Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the behaviorist perspective on development?

Development occurs mostly through environmental influences and learned behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

Which age period includes the onset of puberty?

Adolescence Signup and view all the answers

How did John Locke's view on child development differ from that of preformationists?

Locke viewed children as blank slates shaped by their environment. Signup and view all the answers

What may indicate a person's psychological age?

Cognitive impairments and adaptive capacity Signup and view all the answers

Which theorist is known for the idea that children develop according to a natural plan and emphasize biological maturation?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about chronological age is accurate?

It may not capture an individual's life experience. Signup and view all the answers

What describes early childhood's age period?

Two to six years of age Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes Jean Piaget's view on child development?

Children actively construct their own understanding through exploration. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common argument regarding social age in the 21st century?

Social age expectations are changing. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of development, what is meant by the term 'maturation' as defined by Arnold Gesell?

Development that unfolds in fixed sequences governed by genetics. Signup and view all the answers

What is the age range for established adulthood?

30 to 45 years Signup and view all the answers

What common belief did both Locke and Rousseau reject about children?

Children should be treated as little adults. Signup and view all the answers

An individual with the cognitive capacity of an 8-year-old is an example of:

Psychological age disparity Signup and view all the answers

How does the stability versus change concept relate to theories of development?

It examines whether early behaviors are fixed or can be modified by experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts is associated with behaviorism in child development?

Positive reinforcement leads to learning. Signup and view all the answers

What was one key belief of Sigmund Freud regarding development?

Early childhood experiences shape adult personality. Signup and view all the answers

Which theorist emphasized the role of the environment in shaping a child's development during their early years?

John Locke Signup and view all the answers

What primarily influences social mobility within a class system?

A combination of socially and individually created limits and opportunities Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is linked to increased job satisfaction and overall well-being?

Freedom and control over one's job Signup and view all the answers

What defines a family as living at the poverty level?

Having less than the federal government's set income threshold Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT associated with poverty?

Greater access to healthcare Signup and view all the answers

What is ethnocentrism?

The understanding that one's culture is superior to others Signup and view all the answers

What does cultural relativity promote?

Appreciation of cultural practices from other societies Signup and view all the answers

What is the main aspect of development that cultural understanding helps to clarify?

Culturally based features of development Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about lifespan is true?

The longest recorded lifespan for a human was 122 years Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT contribute to a lower life expectancy?

Greater access to healthcare Signup and view all the answers

Individuals might experience feeling older than their chronological age due to which of the following reasons?

Significant life events or stress Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of children during early childhood?

Gaining independence and learning language Signup and view all the answers

At what stage does sexual maturation occur?

Adolescence Signup and view all the answers

Which category does late adulthood NOT include?

Mid-adulthood Signup and view all the answers

In which developmental stage is identity exploration a significant focus?

Emerging Adulthood Signup and view all the answers

What issue does the nature versus nurture debate address?

The impacts of heredity and environmental factors on traits Signup and view all the answers

Which theorists are associated with stage theories of development?

Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg Signup and view all the answers

During which life stage is there an increased risk for violent crimes and substance abuse?

Emerging Adulthood Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary concern for individuals in established adulthood?

Career establishment and intimate relationships Signup and view all the answers

How is the development during middle and late childhood characterized?

Academic learning and self-assessment Signup and view all the answers

What causes the noticeable aging seen in middle adulthood?

Natural physiological changes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Erikson's theory regarding the developmental stage from 65 to death?

Ego integrity versus despair Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of behaviorism is a key contribution of B.F. Skinner?

The principle of reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of reciprocal determinism in Bandura's Social Learning Theory?

There is a mutual influence between individuals and their environments Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon was illustrated in Bandura's study with the Bobo doll?

Aggressive behavior learned through imitation Signup and view all the answers

Which criticism has been leveled against Erikson's theory?

It presumes completion of one crisis is necessary for the next. Signup and view all the answers

How did Skinner’s experiments contribute to educational psychology?

By establishing the role of reinforcement in teaching. Signup and view all the answers

What role do parents play in the context of Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism?

They influence and are influenced by their children's behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Why is the study of behavior significant in psychology, according to behaviorists?

It provides insights into learning principles. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about Social Learning Theory is true?

It emphasizes learning through observation and modeling. Signup and view all the answers

What did Bandura’s 1963 experiment reveal about children and media influence?

Children learn aggressive behaviors through exposure to violent media. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Freud's theory regarding human behavior?

Biological instincts and their management Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of Freud's theories has been heavily criticized?

The inability to test unconscious concepts scientifically Signup and view all the answers

How does Erikson's psychosocial theory differ from Freud's views on development?

Erikson identifies stages that span the entire lifespan. Signup and view all the answers

What is the crisis faced during Erikson's first stage of development?

Trust versus Mistrust Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of failing to resolve Erikson's fifth stage, Identity versus Role Confusion?

Likelihood of becoming self-absorbed and stagnant Signup and view all the answers

Which stage in Erikson's model involves the development of an interest in guiding the next generation?

Generativity versus Stagnation Signup and view all the answers

Freud's theories dominated psychiatry until which psychological movement gained prominence?

Behaviorism Signup and view all the answers

What developmental challenge characterizes Erikson's stage for adolescents?

Identity versus Role Confusion Signup and view all the answers

What factor does Erikson propose as essential for successful development across his stages?

Resolution of each psychosocial crisis Signup and view all the answers

Which stage specifically focuses on developing a sense of free will in a child?

Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt Signup and view all the answers

What are the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal operational Signup and view all the answers

According to Piaget, what primarily influences cognitive development?

Physical maturation Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the Concrete operational stage in Piaget’s theory?

Logical thinking about real objects Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction in cognitive development?

Sociocultural Theory Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Vygotsky’s view on abilities compared to Piaget’s?

Vygotsky holds that potential abilities can be developed Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with Information Processing theory?

Cognitive development is continuous with gradual skill improvements. Signup and view all the answers

What did Piaget notice that led him to develop his theory of cognitive development?

Patterns in children's wrong answers on IQ tests Signup and view all the answers

What is a criticism commonly associated with Piaget’s theory?

Underestimating the role of innate abilities Signup and view all the answers

What do Brain maturation and environmental interactions enable in cognitive development according to the content?

Enhancement of processing strategies Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension of development focuses on changes in intelligence and memory?

Cognitive Signup and view all the answers

What is the range of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient?

–1.00 to +1.00 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios illustrates a negative correlation?

As age increases, the number of diapers used decreases. Signup and view all the answers

What principle describes the ability to change and adapt characteristics over time?

Plasticity Signup and view all the answers

Which principle states that development occurs throughout an individual’s entire life?

Lifespan Development Signup and view all the answers

What do positive values of the correlation coefficient indicate?

A positive linear relationship Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of correlational research designs?

They cannot establish causal relationships. Signup and view all the answers

What are the influences that result from unique individual experiences called?

Non-normative life influences Signup and view all the answers

In the context of socioeconomic status, which aspect tends to be similar among individuals within the same social class?

Parenting styles Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best explains the meaning of correlation does not demonstrate causation?

A correlation may result from both variables being caused by a third variable. Signup and view all the answers

What type of research is particularly useful when variables cannot be manipulated?

Correlational research Signup and view all the answers

Which principle emphasizes that development can occur in multiple directions, showing both gains and losses?

Multidirectional Growth Signup and view all the answers

When is a positive correlation likely observed?

As education levels increase, income typically increases. Signup and view all the answers

Which domain of development is primarily concerned with emotional changes and interpersonal relationships?

Psychosocial Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following illustrates a common misconception about correlations?

A strong correlation indicates one variable will always predict another. Signup and view all the answers

What type of influences are shaped by the historical context in which a person lives?

Normative history-graded influences Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes developmental psychology's relationship to other fields?

It informs and complements both applied and basic research fields. Signup and view all the answers

Which variable could be a potential third variable in a correlation between violent TV viewing and aggressive behavior?

The discipline style of the parents Signup and view all the answers

Which principle highlights that changes in development may influence multiple areas simultaneously?

Cascading Effects Signup and view all the answers

What does the microsystem primarily consist of?

The individual’s immediate environment and significant contacts Signup and view all the answers

Which system directly influences the microsystem according to Bronfenbrenner's model?

Mesosystem Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the exosystem?

Community values and economic conditions Signup and view all the answers

What main aspect does the macrosystem include?

Cultural elements like global conditions and societal values Signup and view all the answers

What is the distinct disadvantage of case studies in psychological research?

They often provide limited, static pictures of situations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following research designs involves manipulation of variables?

Experimental research Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do correlational studies provide in psychological research?

They can reveal relationships between variables without manipulation. Signup and view all the answers

Why is Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory considered difficult to use in research?

It involves numerous variables and their interactions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of experimental research?

To assess the causal impact of manipulations on a dependent variable Signup and view all the answers

What primary focus does descriptive research have?

Observing and recording behaviors without intervention Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of correlational research?

It cannot determine causation between variables Signup and view all the answers

Which system in Bronfenbrenner's model represents the influence of historical context?

Chronosystem Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of cross-sectional research?

It compares samples of participants from different age groups Signup and view all the answers

What limitation may an experiment face based on ethical concerns?

Inability to assess certain social variables Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does experimental research specifically aim to ascertain?

Causal relationships among variables Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential advantage of descriptive research?

It provides a snapshot of the current state of affairs Signup and view all the answers

What does the cohort effect refer to in cross-sectional research?

The influence of being born in a specific time period Signup and view all the answers

Why may experimental research not always be applicable to everyday life?

It is often conducted in controlled laboratory settings Signup and view all the answers

What unique advantage does correlational research offer compared to experimental research?

Ability to assess relationships in natural settings Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the dependent variable in an experiment?

It is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary concern related to laboratory observations in research?

Participants might act differently because they know they are being observed. Signup and view all the answers

Which method allows researchers to gather data from a large number of individuals quickly?

Surveys Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of surveys compared to interviews?

Participants may feel embarrassed to answer truthfully in surveys. Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do interviews have over surveys?

Interviews allow for probing and clarification of responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key use of event-related potentials (ERPs) in research?

To record brain activity during the presentation of stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes psychophysiological assessment?

It measures biological responses alongside behavioral observations. Signup and view all the answers

What specific technique was used in the research on children’s face and object processing?

Event-related potentials (ERPs) Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential issue with using secondary or content analysis?

It may rely on outdated datasets. Signup and view all the answers

How might social desirability affect interview responses?

Participants may provide answers they believe are more favorable. Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing feature of naturalistic observation?

It captures behavior in undisturbed natural environments. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Correlational Research

Correlational research examines the relationship between two variables, determining both strength and direction.
Strength indicates how closely the variables move together, while direction can be positive (both variables increase) or negative (one variable increases as the other decreases).

Vygotsky’s Theory

Emphasizes the social context of learning and the importance of cultural tools.
Suggests development is a socially mediated process, with language as a critical component.

Teratogens

Teratogens are substances that can cause developmental malformations in a fetus.
Examples include alcohol, drugs, and certain medications.

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

Cephalocaudal development refers to growth from head to toe.
Proximodistal development describes growth from the center of the body outward to the extremities.

Neural Impulses

Neural impulses travel along neurons to transmit information within the nervous system.
Myelination enhances the speed of these impulses during development.

Neurological Change in First Year

Rapid brain growth occurs in the first year, with significant synaptic pruning and increased connectivity.

Definition of Language

Language is a system of symbols and rules used for communication among individuals.

Operant Conditioning

A learning principle where behaviors are modified by their consequences, including reinforcements and punishments.

Erikson’s Trust vs Mistrust

This is the first stage of psychosocial development focusing on infants learning to trust their caregivers and the world.

The process through which infants look to caregivers’ emotional reactions to gauge how to respond in uncertain situations.

Attachment Styles

Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized attachment styles influence emotional and social development.

Stages of Play Development

Includes unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Comprises four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Object permanence develops in the sensorimotor stage.
In the preoperational stage, children exhibit animism, egocentrism, and struggle with conservation concepts.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles influence children's behavior and development.

Cliques vs Crowds

Cliques are small, tight-knit groups of friends, while crowds are larger social groupings with less intimacy.

Eating Disorders

Major types: anorexia (restriction of food intake), bulimia (binge eating followed by purging), and binge eating disorder (consuming large quantities without compensating behaviors).
Risk factors include genetic predisposition, societal pressures, and psychological issues.

Working Memory and Processing Speed in Adolescence

Adolescents show improvements in working memory capacity and processing speed, facilitating complex cognitive tasks.

Adolescent Brain Structures

Key structures include the prefrontal cortex (decision-making) and amygdala (emotion regulation).

Identity Search

Identity development involves moratorium (exploration), foreclosure (commitment without exploration), identity achievement, and diffusion (lack of commitment).

Attachment in Adolescence and Adulthood

Forms the basis for later relationships, influencing individual emotional and relational dynamics.

Causes of Death (Ages 25-44)

Major causes include accidents, homicides, and drug overdoses.

Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood Theory

How individuals aged 18-25 experience unique challenges, including identity exploration, instability, and self-focus.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Love

Consists of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment, which combine to form different types of love.

Experts vs Novices

Experts possess deep, organized knowledge and superior problem-solving skills compared to novices.

Big Five Personality Traits

Includes openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism as key dimensions of personality.

Domestic Violence

Defined as behaviors used by one partner to maintain power and control over another; includes physical, emotional, and economic abuse.
Stats show prevalence and impact across societies.

Erikson: Generativity vs Stagnation

This stage focuses on the need to contribute to society through work and family or feeling unproductive.

Stress and Cortisol in Adulthood

Chronic stress leads to elevated cortisol levels, which can impact overall health.

Midlife Crisis

Often characterized by reflection, questioning life choices, and possible desire for change.

Women’s Health in Older Adulthood

Women show higher resistance to infections and degenerative diseases, partially due to hormonal factors and genetic differences.

Theories of Aging

Cellular clock theory suggests limited cell divisions; free radical theory focuses on oxidative damage; genetics play a role in aging processes.

Stress Response in Age Groups

Older adults often have different stress responses compared to younger adults, including coping strategies and resilience.

Brain Changes in Older Adulthood

Neuronal loss and decreased plasticity can affect memory and cognitive functions.

Causes of Death (Ages 65-74)

Common causes include heart disease, cancer, and chronic respiratory conditions.

Blue Zones

Regions with high longevity, characterized by lifestyle, diet, and social engagement.

Memory Types

Episodic memory refers to events and experiences; semantic memory involves facts and concepts.

Life Review Process

Reflecting on past experiences to derive meaning and closure in later life.

Activity and Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

Emphasizes that older adults prioritize meaningful social interactions as they perceive time as limited.

Life Expectancy

In the US, women generally have a higher life expectancy than men.

Views of Death

Includes visible (overt), filtered (partial understanding), and invisible (ignored) perspectives.

Attitudes toward Death

Vary significantly in American culture, influenced by personal experiences and societal norms.

Euthanasia

Active euthanasia involves direct action to end life, while passive euthanasia allows natural death through withholding treatment.

Advance Care Planning

Involves legal directives about medical care preferences, such as living wills and do not resuscitate orders (DNRs).

Models of Grief

Include the five stages of grief (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance) and the dual process model (oscillating between loss-oriented and restoration-oriented processes).

Grief, Mourning, and Bereavement

Grief is the emotional response; mourning is the outward expression; bereavement refers to the state of having lost someone.

Introduction to Lifespan Development

Developmental Psychology studies changes across the lifespan, from conception to death, examining physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.
Historically focused on infants and children, the field now encompasses adolescence and aging, with increased attention on adulthood.
Development is ongoing; early childhood experiences don't solely dictate future outcomes, and change can occur at any age.

Lifespan Perspective Principles

Lifelong Development: Change continues throughout life; no singular age dominates development.
Multidirectionality: Individuals may experience gains in some areas while experiencing losses in others.
Multidimensionality: Development involves physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains which influence each other significantly.
Multidisciplinarity: Human development draws from various fields, including biology, sociology, and healthcare.
Plasticity: Many aspects of development are malleable, exemplified by the brain's capacity to learn and recover from injury.
Multicontextual: Influences include normative age-graded (shared experiences), normative history-graded (cohort experiences), and non-normative influences (unique life events).

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

SES impacts lifestyle, parenting styles, and overall well-being. Higher SES correlates with better job freedom and control, while lower SES often leads to routine jobs with greater instability.
Poverty affects health, life expectancy, access to healthcare, and educational outcomes, impacting an individual's overall quality of life.

Cultural Contexts of Development

Culture encompasses values, norms, and practices, shaping individual behaviors and societal roles.
Ethnocentrism can hinder understanding of cultural differences; cultural relativity fosters appreciation of diverse practices.
Recognition of cultural influences in development is essential as previous theories were often culturally bound.

Aging and Lifespan Concepts

Lifespan and life expectancy are different; life expectancy refers to average lifespan, while lifespan indicates total potential years of life.
The longest recorded human lifespan is 122 years, while other species have varied lifespans (e.g., Galapagos tortoise over 150 years).

Conceptions of Age

Chronological age: Years since birth.
Biological age: Age based on physical health and biological processes.
Psychological age: Cognitive and emotional functioning relative to others.
Social age: Age based on societal norms and life milestones, with evolving expectations in modern society.

Periods of Development

Prenatal: Conception to birth; major body structures begin formation.
Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to 2 years; dramatic growth and development of basic skills.
Early Childhood: 2 to 6 years; language acquisition, independence, and exploration.
Middle and Late Childhood: 6 to puberty; academic learning and self-comparison.
Adolescence: Puberty to 18; physical and cognitive development, increased risk-taking behaviors.
Emerging Adulthood: 18 to 29; transition to independence and identity exploration.
Established Adulthood: 30 to 45; focus on relationships and career establishment.
Middle Adulthood: 45 to 65; noticeable aging, peak productivity in work and personal life.
Late Adulthood: 65 onward; further aging with increased health risks.

Key Issues in Lifespan Development

Nature vs. Nurture: Ongoing debate on whether heredity or environment plays a more significant role in development.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Theories vary on whether development occurs gradually or in distinct stages, often influenced by theorists like Freud and Piaget.
Active vs. Passive Development: The role individuals play in shaping their development varies by theory.
Stability vs. Change: The extent to which childhood traits persist into adulthood is contested among theorists.

Historical Theories of Development

Preformationist View: Historical belief that children were miniature adults with predetermined abilities.
John Locke's Tabula Rasa: Proposed that children are shaped by experiences and education, rejecting innate knowledge concepts.### John Locke and Environmental Influence
Emphasized the significant impact of the environment on child development during early life.
Considered the mind pliable in childhood; environment affects children's thoughts and feelings through associations, behavioral repetition, imitation, and rewards/punishments.
His ideas contributed to the foundation of the behavioral perspective, influencing theorists like Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Developmental Perspective

Viewed children as developing according to an innate natural plan, rather than as blank slates.
Advocated for children's independence in thinking, guided by their biological timetable.
Considered the father of developmental psychology; influenced theorists like Gesell, Montessori, and Piaget.

Arnold Gesell and Maturation

Pioneered research on neuromotor development at Yale Clinic of Child Development over 50 years.
Proposed maturation is driven by genetics, with children developing in fixed sequences.
Opposed early teaching; believed in waiting for natural developmental readiness.

Sigmund Freud and Psychodynamic Theory

Focused on early childhood experiences shaping personality and behavior.
Emphasized instinct management and socialization during childhood.
Established the psychodynamic perspective, detailing theories of psychosexual development and psychopathology.
Criticized for scientific testability issues and the validity of case studies.

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Development

Proposed eight developmental stages across the lifespan, highlighting unique psychosocial crises in each.
Suggested that successful navigation of crises positively influences later stages.
Critiqued for heavy focus on crises and cultural biases in the relevance of stages.

Learning Theory and Behaviorism

Behaviorism posits behavior is observable and measurable; internal mental processes are secondary.
B.F. Skinner popularized behaviorism through stimulus-response principles and reinforcement techniques.
Contributions to educational methods and understanding nature-nurture dynamics.

Introduced learning by imitation; actions can be influenced by observing others rather than direct conditioning.
Emphasized reciprocal determinism, where individuals and environments influence each other.
Notable research included the "Bobo doll" experiment showcasing media’s impact on aggressive behavior.

Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget categorized cognitive development into four key stages:
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2): Involves sensory experiences; gains object permanence.
- Preoperational (2 to 7): Development of language and perspective-taking; theory of mind.
- Concrete Operational (7 to 11): Logical thinking and operations on real objects; conservation.
- Formal Operational (11+): Abstract reasoning and advanced systematic thinking.
Criticized for overemphasizing maturation and neglecting cultural influences.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Stressed the influence of socio-cultural interactions on cognitive development.
Proposed potential abilities can be developed with proper guidance, contrasting Piaget’s maturation focus.

Information Processing Theory

Describes cognitive development as continuous, building complex skills from simpler abilities.
Utilizes a model of perception, analysis, manipulation, and memory in understanding cognition.

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Posits that individual development is influenced by multiple environmental systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem).
Highlights the broad range of social influences shaping a child's environment and experiences.

Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

Correlational Research: Examines relationships between variables without manipulation.
Experimental Research: Involves manipulation of one or more variables to observe effects.
Descriptive Research: Includes methods such as case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and interviews to gather data on behavior.
Emphasizes the importance of methodological rigor to understand human behavior accurately.### Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
ERPs are measured using stretchy caps equipped with sensors that detect electrical currents on the scalp.
They provide insights into how infants and children perceive stimuli like sounds and images.
A study by Webb et al. investigated face and object processing in children with autism, developmental delays, and typically developing children using ERPs.
Children watched photographs of familiar faces and objects while their brain activity was recorded.
Findings indicated that children with autism process faces differently compared to their typically developing peers.

Secondary/Content Analysis

Secondary analysis entails examining pre-existing data sets, such as U.S. Census Data, rather than collecting new data.
Researchers do not need to recruit participants but must evaluate the original study's data quality.

Correlational Research

Correlational research measures the relationship between two or more variables rather than providing snapshots like descriptive research.
Example correlations include the systematic relationship between height and weight, typically showing taller individuals weigh more.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) ranges from -1.00 to +1.00, indicating the strength and direction of relationships; values closer to ±1 signify stronger correlations.
Positive correlations occur when increased values of one variable relate to increased values of another, while negative correlations indicate an inverse relationship.
Correlational research cannot establish causation; a correlation does not imply one variable causes changes in another.
Confounding variables, such as parenting style, can influence observed correlations (e.g., between violent TV and aggression in children).

Strengths and Limitations of Correlational Research

Useful when experimental conditions are impractical or unethical, allowing for natural observation of behaviors.
Can facilitate predictive analytics based on multiple test scores.
Limitations include the inability to determine causal relationships and the potential impact of third variables.

Experimental Research

Experimental research aims to clarify causal relationships by testing hypotheses in controlled environments.
In this design, independent variables are manipulated to observe effects on dependent variables.
Random assignment of participants into experimental and control groups enhances the validity of findings.
Experiments can determine causation but may lack ecological validity if conducted in artificial settings.
Ethical considerations limit manipulation of certain variables, necessitating the use of correlational designs for sensitive topics, like abuse.

Comparative Research Designs

Descriptive Research: Captures the current state of affairs to form questions for future inquiry; does not analyze relationships between variables.
Correlational Research: Assesses relationships among multiple variables; useful in real-life contexts but lacks causal inference.
Experimental Research: Determines causal effects of manipulated variables; ethically limited in manipulating important social variables.

Research Involving Time-Spans

Cross-sectional studies compare age-diverse samples measured at a single point in time, allowing for cost-effective research without practice effects.
This method does not enable the assessment of cohort effects, which consider how societal context affects different age groups over time.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in child development, including correlational research, Vygotsky's theory, and Ericson's stages. Test your understanding of teratogens, attachment styles, and neurological changes in the first year of life. Engage with various aspects of developmental psychology and how they interconnect.