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Questions and Answers
What is a key characteristic of effortful control in early childhood?
Which parenting style is associated with promoting the happiest and most successful children according to Baumrind’s theory?
What limitation exists in Baumrind's description of parenting styles?
How does screen time affect children's learning and behavior?
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What is one of the factors that help children develop resilience in middle childhood?
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What is the primary difference between additive and dominant–recessive inheritance?
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What is meant by heritability in genetics?
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What is a significant consequence of Down syndrome?
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Why is sickle-cell disease more prevalent in certain regions of Africa?
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What is one of the primary roles of a genetic counselor?
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At which stage of prenatal development does organ formation primarily occur?
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What does the APGAR score assess in newborns?
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Which definition best describes a teratogen?
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What is the primary focus of developmental science?
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Which of the following describes a critical period in development?
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What is an example of a qualitative research method in developmental science?
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Which of the following distinguishes epigenetics from genetics?
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What is the primary criticism of behaviorism in developmental theories?
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What does the acronym IRB stand for, and why is it important in developmental science?
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How do monozygotic twins differ from dizygotic twins?
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Why are newer developmental theories described as multidisciplinary?
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What is the primary purpose of using the Ainsworth Strange Situation to assess children?
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During toddlerhood, how does social referencing aid in a child's development?
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What common factor is agreed upon by both Erikson's theory and contemporary evolutionary theories regarding parental care?
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What has contributed to the increased obesity risk in today’s children compared to those 50 years ago?
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Which of the following factors significantly aids in the development of motor skills in children?
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Piaget referred to the first stage of cognition as sensorimotor intelligence primarily because of which key feature?
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What is a significant long-term consequence of childhood maltreatment?
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Which skill differentiation exists between egocentrism in children and selfishness in adults?
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Study Notes
Developmental Science
- Focuses on: the study of human growth and change from conception to death.
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Scientific Method: a systematic process with five steps:
- Identify a question
- Develop a hypothesis
- Gather data
- Analyze the data
- Draw conclusions
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Nature vs. Nurture: a debate about the relative influence of genetics and environment on development.
- Modern perspective acknowledges the interaction between both factors.
- Epigenetics studies how the environment influences gene expression.
- Differential Susceptibility: suggests individuals vary in their sensitivity to environmental influences.
- Continuity in Development: refers to gradual and consistent changes throughout life.
- Critical Period: A specific time during which a particular skill or ability must develop.
- Sensitive Period: A time when development is most susceptible to environmental influences but not entirely fixed.
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Social Contexts: the setting in which development occurs, including:
- Family
- Culture
- Socioeconomic status
- Cohorts: a group of individuals born within a specific period.
- Age Groups: a classification of individuals based on their age range.
- Plasticity: refers to the ability of the brain and other systems to adapt and change in response to experiences.
Scientific Methods
- Observations: to gain an understanding of typical or atypical behavior.
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Experimental Studies: control groups and treatment groups.
- Advantages: allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
- Disadvantages: ethical concerns and difficulties applying findings to real-world situations.
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Survey Method: collects data through questionnaires or interviews.
- Advantages: quick and efficient for gathering large amounts of data.
- Disadvantages: difficult to ensure honesty and accuracy of responses.
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Cross-Sectional Research: compares groups of individuals at different ages at a single point in time.
- Advantages: time-efficient in studying age-related changes.
- Disadvantages: cannot determine the causes of observed differences.
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Longitudinal Research: follows the same individuals over a period of time.
- Advantages: allows researchers to track changes in individuals over time.
- Disadvantages: time-consuming and expensive, attrition (drop-out) may occur.
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Cross-Sequential Research: combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.
- Advantages: attempts to overcome the limitations of both methods.
- Disadvantages: more complex and resource-intensive.
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Correlational Research: examines the relationships between different variables.
- Advantages: allows researchers to study naturally occurring relationships.
- Disadvantages: cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
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Quantitative Research: uses objective measurements and statistical analysis of data.
- Advantages: provides a framework for comparing and interpreting data.
- Disadvantages: may overlook subjective experiences.
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Qualitative Research: uses subjective methods like interviews and observations.
- Advantages: provides in-depth understanding of individual perspectives.
- Disadvantages: may be difficult to generalize findings.
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
- Purpose: to ensure ethical standards are followed in research involving human subjects.
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Key Concerns:
- Informed consent
- Confidentiality
- Minimizing harm.
Theories of Human Development
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Functions of Theories:
- Organize observations: structure understanding of complex processes.
- Provide explanations: offer insights into underlying causes.
- Aid predictions: allow for informed assumptions about future behavior.
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Grand Theories:
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Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud and Erikson): focus on the development of personality, motivation, and emotion based on unconscious processes.
- Freud: emphasizes psychosexual stages and the impact of early childhood experiences.
- Erikson: highlights psychosocial stages across the lifespan that involve social interactions and identity formation.
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Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories (Skinner, Bandura): emphasize the role of learning through conditioning and observation.
- Skinner: operant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment shape behavior.
- Bandura: observational learning, modeling, and social cognition.
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Cognitive Theories (Piaget, Vygotsky, Information Processing): focus on the development of thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities.
- Piaget: cognitive stages of development, assimilation, and accommodation.
- Vygotsky: sociocultural theory, the zone of proximal development, and scaffolding.
- Information Processing: mental processes like attention, memory, and decision-making.
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Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud and Erikson): focus on the development of personality, motivation, and emotion based on unconscious processes.
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Neuroscience: offers methods for studying brain activity, providing insights into the biological bases of development.
- Contributions: a deeper understanding of the brain's role in learning, emotions, and behavior.
Newer Theories
- Multidisciplinary Approach: emphasizes integration of insights from various disciplines, including biology, psychology, and sociology.
- Multicultural Approach: acknowledges the influence of culture on development.
- Universal Approach: seeks to identify commonalities and differences in development across cultures.
- Sociocultural Theories: highlight the role of social contexts in shaping development, emphasizing the interplay of individual and environment.
- Evolutionary Theory: examines the adaptive significance of behaviors in terms of survival and reproduction.
Criticisms of Grand Theories
- Psychoanalytic Theories: overemphasis on early childhood experiences and difficulty in testing concepts.
- Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories: may not fully account for the internal factors that influence behavior.
- Cognitive Theories: may overlook the role of emotions and social experiences in development.
Eclectic Approach
- Most developmentalists adopt an eclectic approach, integrating principles from multiple theories to provide a more comprehensive understanding of development.
Genetics and Development
- Chromosomes: humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 chromosomes.
- Genes: segments of DNA that contain coded instructions for building and maintaining the body.
- Allele: alternative forms of a gene.
- Microbiome: the collective of microorganisms, including bacteria, that reside in the human body.
- Zygote: a fertilized egg, with a unique combination of genes from both parents.
- Sex Chromosomes: determines the sex of offspring; XX = female, XY = male.
- Stem Cells: undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into various cell types.
- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): fertilization occurs in a laboratory setting before implantation.
- Traditional Pregnancy: fertilization occurs naturally within the body.
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CRISPR: a gene-editing tool used for modifying the genome.
- Illegal for human embryos: ethical and safety concerns surrounding its use.
- Monozygotic Twins: develop from a single fertilized egg that splits, resulting in identical twins.
- Dizygotic Twins: develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm, resulting in fraternal twins.
- Additive Inheritance: multiple genes contribute to a specific trait.
- Dominant-Recessive Inheritance: one allele masks the expression of another.
- Heritability: a statistical estimate of the extent to which a trait is influenced by genetic factors.
- Down Syndrome: caused by an extra chromosome 21, resulting in intellectual and physical challenges.
- Recessive Conditions: occur when both alleles are recessive.
- Sickle-Cell Disease: a recessive condition prevalent in areas with endemic malaria.
- Genetic Counselor: a healthcare professional who provides information and guidance on genetic risks and conditions.
- Ethical Mandates: informed consent, confidentiality, and non-discrimination.
Prenatal Development
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Three Stages:
- Germinal Stage: first two weeks, characterized by rapid cell division and implantation.
- Embryonic Stage: weeks 3-8, development of major organs and body systems.
- Fetal Stage: weeks 9-40, growth and refinement of body structures.
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Embryonic Development:
- First to form: the neural tube, which later develops into the brain and spinal cord.
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Last Three Months:
- Rapid brain growth
- Maturation of organs and systems
- Weight gain
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APGAR: a test conducted at 1 and 5 minutes after birth to assess newborn health.
- Measures: heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and color.
- Score: a higher score indicates a healthy newborn.
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Premature Baby: born before 37 weeks of gestation.
- Low Birthweight: 1,500-2,500 grams.
- Very Low Birthweight: 1,000-1,500 grams.
- Extremely Low Birthweight: less than 1,000 grams.
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Teratogens: environmental agents, like drugs, that can cause birth defects.
- Behavioral Teratogens: environmental agents that can alter brain development and behavior.
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Stages of Birth:
- Labor: contractions and dilation of the cervix.
- Delivery: the baby emerges from the birth canal.
- Placenta: afterbirth, the placenta is expelled.
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Newborn Social Interaction:
- Responds to sounds, touch, and visual stimuli.
- Imitates facial expressions.
- Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment: a test to assess the newborn's neurological and behavioral development.
- Newborn Reflexes: automatic responses to specific stimuli, such as the sucking reflex, rooting reflex, and grasping reflex.
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Parent-Infant Bond: a strong emotional connection between caregiver and infant.
- Formed through: physical contact, eye contact, and interaction.
- Maternal Depression: can affect the developing infant, impacting emotional regulation and attachment.
- Father's Role: increasingly recognized as crucial for the infant's development.
- Breastfeeding: provides optimal nutrition and immunity for infants.
- Kangaroo Care: skin-to-skin contact between caregiver and infant, promoting bonding and regulating the infant's body temperature.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
- Rapid Growth: infants gain weight and height rapidly in the first year.
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Brain Development:
- Synaptogenesis: formation of connections between neurons.
- Pruning: elimination of unnecessary synapses, enhancing efficiency.
- Experience-Expectant Growth: brain development that depends on typical environmental experiences.
- Experience-Dependent Growth: brain development that is shaped by specific experiences.
- Stress and Social Deprivation: deprivation can have negative impacts on brain development, leading to cognitive and emotional deficits.
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Sensory Abilities:
- Sight: rapid development of visual acuity and color perception.
- Sound: ability to discriminate speech sounds.
- Taste: preference for sweet flavors.
- Motor Skills: develop progressively through the first year, with milestones like rolling, sitting, crawling, and walking.
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Immunizations: vital for protecting infants from preventable diseases.
- Low Immunization Rates: concern due to potential for outbreaks.
- Breastfeeding: recommended for at least one year for optimal nutrition and immunity.
- Malnutrition: leads to stunted growth, weakened immune system, and developmental delays.
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Emotions:
- First year: basic emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, and fear.
- Second year: more complex emotions like embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride.
- Anger and Sadness: triggered by frustrating experiences or separation from caregivers.
- Fears: common fears at 1 year old include fear of strangers, loud noises, and sudden movements.
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Temperament: innate characteristics influencing emotional reactivity, activity level, and sociability.
- Enduring Traits: some aspects of temperament may remain relatively stable.
- Contextual Influence: environment can shape temperament.
- Synchrony: coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant, promoting emotional development and attachment.
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Attachment: a strong emotional bond between infant and caregiver.
- Proximity-Seeking: infants seek closeness to their caregiver.
- Contact-Maintaining: infants maintain physical contact with their caregiver.
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Attachment Styles:
- Secure: trusting and affectionate.
- Insecure-Avoidant: distant and aloof.
- Insecure-Resistant: anxious and ambivalent.
- Disorganized: confused and inconsistent.
- Ainsworth Strange Situation: a laboratory assessment used to identify attachment styles.
- Social Referencing: children's tendency to look to caregivers for cues about how to react to unfamiliar situations.
Early Childhood
- Normative Growth: continued growth in height and weight between ages 2 and 6.
- Overfeeding: common in early childhood, contributing to childhood obesity.
- Obesity: increasing rates, influenced by factors like diet, lack of physical activity, and genetics.
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Brain Development:
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Myelination: the process of coating nerve fibers with myelin, which speeds up neural transmission.
- Essential for: cognitive and motor skills.
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Myelination: the process of coating nerve fibers with myelin, which speeds up neural transmission.
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Motor Skills:
- Gross Motor: large muscle movements, like running, jumping, and throwing.
- Fine Motor: small muscle movements, like drawing and writing.
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Child Maltreatment: physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, or neglect.
- Difficulties in Identification: underreporting due to stigma and secrecy.
- Long-Term Consequences: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties.
- Neglect: considered more harmful than abuse, as it deprives children of essential needs.
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Piaget's Cognitive Stages:
- Sensorimotor Intelligence (Infancy): children learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
- Preoperational Thinking (Early Childhood): development of language and symbolic thought, but limited by egocentrism and centration.
- Object Permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
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Critiques of Piaget: infants may have some object permanence earlier than Piaget's theory suggests.
- Other Issues: underestimates children's abilities and the role of social interaction in development.
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Visual Cliff: an apparatus used to test depth perception in infants.
- Research: infants refuse to crawl over the cliff, indicating some depth perception around 10 months.
- Memory Abilities: infants have limited memory capabilities, but they show improvement with age, maturation, and experience.
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Language Development:
- Early Childhood: rapid increase in vocabulary and sentence complexity.
- Egocentrism: children focus on their own perspective, unaware of others' viewpoints.
- Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development: the distance between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with assistance.
- Bilingualism: positive impact on cognitive flexibility, language skills, and academic performance.
- Preschool: provides opportunities for social interaction, learning, and early literacy development.
- Head Start Program: a federally funded program that provides comprehensive early childhood education services to low-income children.
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Emotion Regulation: the ability to control and manage emotions.
- Effortful Control: the capacity to inhibit impulsive behaviors and delay gratification, emerging in early childhood.
- Attachment and Parenting: secure attachment continues to be important in early childhood, with parents acting as guides and mentors.
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Parenting Styles (Baumrind):
- Authoritative: high in warmth and control, promoting independence, responsible behavior, and self-esteem.
- Authoritarian: high in control and low in warmth, emphasizing obedience and punishment.
- Permissive: low in control and high in warmth, allowing children significant freedom and lenient discipline.
- Neglectful: low in both warmth and control.
- Limitations: cultural variation and the complexity of parenting.
- Culture and Parenting: parenting styles and expectations vary across cultures.
- Corporal Punishment: physical punishment, linked to negative consequences.
- Induction: a type of discipline that uses explanations and reasoning, promoting moral development and self-control.
- Screen Time: experts advise limiting screen time, as excessive exposure can have adverse impacts on attention, learning, and social development.
- Empathy: the ability to understand and share the feelings of others.
- Antipathy: disliking or hating someone or something.
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Prosocial Behavior: actions intended to help others.
- Connection between Empathy and Prosocial Behavior: empathy promotes prosocial behavior.
Middle Childhood
- Health Habits: influence adult health, highlighting the importance of healthy eating and exercise.
- Obesity Risks: increased risk of chronic conditions like type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and joint problems.
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Traditional IQ Tests: measure cognitive abilities like reasoning, problem-solving, and memory.
- Limitations: do not capture all aspects of intelligence and can be influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status and cultural background.
- Flynn Effect: a steady rise in average IQ scores over time, possible explanations include improved nutrition, education, and technology.
- Brain Scans: may provide additional insights into brain function and cognitive abilities, but not a replacement for traditional intelligence testing.
- Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage: the ability to think logically about concrete events and objects but difficulties with abstract thinking.
- Language Development: continues to advance, with increased vocabulary and understanding of grammar.
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Memory:
- Working Memory: the ability to hold information in mind and process it, essential for academic performance
- Schooling: provides opportunities for academic learning, socialization, and personal development.
- Social Comparison: comparing oneself to others, which can affect self-esteem and social relationships.
- Resilience: the ability to cope with stress and adversity, influenced by protective factors like supportive relationships, self-confidence, and social competence.
- Family and Siblings: significant influences on emotional and social development.
- Siblings: provide opportunities for learning social skills, conflict resolution, and support.
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts in child development, particularly focusing on effortful control, parenting styles, and their impact on children's learning and behavior. This quiz also explores resilience factors in middle childhood. Perfect for educators and parents alike!
