Chemistry: Water and Solutions
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Questions and Answers

Which type of substances are soluble in water?

  • Fat-soluble vitamins
  • Polar solutes (correct)
  • Hydrophobic molecules
  • Non-polar molecules

What term describes molecules that are attracted to water and dissolve in it?

  • Lipophilic
  • Hydrophobic
  • Hydrophilic (correct)
  • Amphipathic

Which of the following vitamins is water-soluble?

  • Vitamin E
  • Vitamin C (correct)
  • Vitamin D
  • Vitamin A

What is the primary reason that sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water?

<p>Water molecules surround the positive and negative ions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures primarily consists of non-polar bonds?

<p>Fat molecules (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bond do polar compounds like Vitamin C predominantly contain?

<p>O-H bonds (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following compounds is likely to be insoluble in water?

<p>A fat molecule (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of molecular structure directly affects solubility in water?

<p>Polarity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic do non-polar solutes, like octane and cyclopentane, share?

<p>They do not dissolve or mix in water. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following compounds is soluble in water due to its structure?

<p>Acetic acid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason benzoic acid is not soluble in water?

<p>It contains a large non-polar benzene portion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the structure of fatty acids?

<p>They contain a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do fatty acids form micelles in water?

<p>By aligning their hydrophilic heads toward the water. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about the interaction of water with non-polar molecules?

<p>Water prefers to bond with itself over non-polar molecules. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component of soaps aids in their ability to interact with water?

<p>Hydrophilic heads. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What allows acetic acid to dissolve in water compared to benzoic acid?

<p>Acetic acid has a smaller non-polar portion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a decrease of 1 pH unit indicate about the acidity of a solution?

<p>The solution is 10 times more acidic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is classified as acidic?

<p>Vinegar (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH classification of pure water?

<p>Neutral (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the pH scale?

<p>A pH increase of 1 unit makes a solution 10 times more basic. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which substance is slightly basic?

<p>Seawater (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes hydrophilic molecules in relation to water?

<p>They have interactions with water as favorable as water-water interactions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do hydrophobic molecules behave in water?

<p>They float on water and do not mix. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increasing temperature have on the solubility of most solids in water?

<p>It increases solubility for most solids. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following solids has decreased solubility in water with increasing temperature?

<p>Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason hydrophilic molecules interact favorably with water?

<p>They contain polar functional groups. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be a correct experimental approach to understand the impact of temperature on a solid's solubility?

<p>Conduct direct solubility testing at various temperatures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions with water?

<p>Hydrophilic molecules have stronger interactions with water than themselves. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of molecules does water interact with as favorably as it does with itself?

<p>Hydrophilic molecules (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH range of solutions typically measured on the pH scale?

<p>0 to 14 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the pH of a solution when the concentration of hydrogen ions ([H+]) increases?

<p>pH decreases (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH value of a neutral solution?

<p>7 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the pH change when a solution becomes more acidic?

<p>It decreases (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is considered to be basic?

<p>Sodium hydroxide (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the pH is decreased from 8 to 7, what happens to the acidity of the solution?

<p>It becomes 10 times more acidic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a solution has a pH of 4, which of the following statements is true?

<p>It is acidic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between pH and the concentration of hydrogen ions?

<p>Increased hydrogen ion concentration corresponds to decreased pH. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What generally happens to the solubility of solids in water as the temperature increases?

<p>It increases in most cases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the solubility of gases in water change with increasing temperature?

<p>It decreases. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is pressure important when dissolving gaseous solutes in water?

<p>It influences the frequency of gas collisions with the water surface. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the amount of dissolved CO2 in oceans as the amount of CO2 above the surface increases?

<p>It increases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding trout and carp in relation to oxygen levels in water?

<p>Trout prefer cooler water with higher oxygen concentrations. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of solubility, which of the following best describes the relationship between pressure and gas solubility in water?

<p>Increased pressure enhances gas solubility. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increased temperature generally have on the solubility of oxygen in water?

<p>It typically decreases oxygen solubility. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be concluded about the solubility of gases in water as temperature increases, relative to aquatic life?

<p>Colder water supports higher levels of dissolved gases, essential for many aquatic organisms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A solution is a ______ mixture of solutes and solvent.

<p>homogenous</p> Signup and view all the answers

In an aqueous solution, the solvent is ______.

<p>H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

The substance being dissolved in a solution is called the ______.

<p>solute</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent is known as its ______.

<p>solubility</p> Signup and view all the answers

For a solution to form, both the solute and solvent must be ______ or non-polar.

<p>polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

Factors affecting solubility include solute structure, temperature, and ______.

<p>pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

Carbonated water is an example of a solution where the solute is a ______.

<p>gas</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is known to be ______ in water.

<p>very soluble</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hydrophilic molecules have more favorable interactions with ______ than with non-polar substances.

<p>water</p> Signup and view all the answers

The solubility of solids in water often ______ with increasing temperature.

<p>increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hydrophobic molecules, such as those made up of C-C and C-H bonds, do not mix well with ______.

<p>water</p> Signup and view all the answers

The interactions between water and hydrophobic molecules are not as strong as water-water or water-______ solute interactions.

<p>polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

The solubility of Na2SO4 in water ______ with increasing temperature.

<p>decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

After an oil spill, aquatic animals are often covered in ______ oil.

<p>waterproof</p> Signup and view all the answers

NON-POLAR SOLUTES are referred to as '________' as water prefers to interact with itself than it does with them.

<p>HYDROPHOBIC</p> Signup and view all the answers

To determine the impact of temperature on solubility of a solid, one must examine it ______.

<p>experimentally</p> Signup and view all the answers

Benzoic acid is not soluble in water since it has a larger NON-POLAR ________ portion.

<p>benzene</p> Signup and view all the answers

Soaps consist of fatty acid molecules with a ________ head and a hydrophobic tail.

<p>HYDROPHILIC</p> Signup and view all the answers

Structure plays a significant role in affecting a molecule's ______ in water.

<p>solubility</p> Signup and view all the answers

FATTY ACIDS align themselves to maximize ________ bonding between hydrophilic heads and water.

<p>hydrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

Both benzoic acid and acetic acid have the same '-COOH' group, which is ________ and helps the molecule dissolve in water.

<p>POLAR</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fatty acids consist of a hydrocarbon tail and a ________ acid head.

<p>carboxylic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Soaps form structures known as ________, which help to encapsulate non-polar substances.

<p>MICELLES</p> Signup and view all the answers

Smaller non-polar molecules are generally ________ in water due to their structure.

<p>SOLUBLE</p> Signup and view all the answers

Since water is ______, it dissolves polar solutes and solutes made of ions.

<p>polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

Vitamin A is considered ______ because it has mostly non-polar C-H bonds.

<p>non-polar</p> Signup and view all the answers

Vitamin C contains several polar ______ bonds, making it soluble in water.

<p>O-H</p> Signup and view all the answers

Substances that dissolve in water are referred to as ______.

<p>hydrophilic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ethanol and glucose are examples of polar substances that are ______ in water.

<p>soluble</p> Signup and view all the answers

Positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions are involved when ______ dissolves in water.

<p>salt</p> Signup and view all the answers

Molecular structure determines a molecule's ______, which affects its solubility.

<p>polarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

Non-polar molecules like fats are mostly made up of ______ bonds.

<p>C-H</p> Signup and view all the answers

The solubility of solids in water generally ______ with increasing temperature.

<p>increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trout require ______ oxygen concentrations found in colder water.

<p>higher</p> Signup and view all the answers

Increasing ______ of a gas above water enhances the amount of that gas dissolved in water.

<p>pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

As the amount of ______ above the oceans increases, the amount entering the oceans also rises.

<p>CO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

Common carp can tolerate lower oxygen concentrations and can live in ______ ponds.

<p>warm</p> Signup and view all the answers

The interactions between a gas and water's surface are influenced by the frequency of ______.

<p>collisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

The solubility of gases in water is easier to ______ than that of solids.

<p>predict</p> Signup and view all the answers

The increase in CO2 above the oceans causes the ocean’s pH to ______.

<p>decrease</p> Signup and view all the answers

A solution is considered ______ if it has a pH of 7.

<p>neutral</p> Signup and view all the answers

ACIDS have a pH ______ than 7.

<p>less</p> Signup and view all the answers

The pH scale typically ranges from ______ to 14.

<p>0</p> Signup and view all the answers

When the concentration of H+ ions increases, the pH will ______.

<p>decrease</p> Signup and view all the answers

Each unit decrease in pH represents a ______ 10 times more acidic solution.

<p>solution that is</p> Signup and view all the answers

The pH of a solution is calculated using the formula ______ = -log[H+].

<p>pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more components.

Solvent

The dissolving medium (usually the major component) of a solution.

Solute

The substance being dissolved in a solution.

Aqueous Solution

A solution where water (Hâ‚‚O) is the solvent.

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Solubility (solids)

Solids dissolve better in warmer water.

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Solubility (gases)

Gases dissolve less in warmer water.

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Pressure & Gases

Increasing pressure increases the solubility of gases in water.

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pH Scale

Measures how acidic or basic a solution is.

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Acid

An aqueous solution with a pH less than 7.

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Base

An aqueous solution with a pH greater than 7.

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Polarity and Solubility

The structure of a molecule determines its polarity, which in turn affects its solubility. Polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents like water, while non-polar molecules dissolve in non-polar solvents like fats.

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C-H Bonds

Carbon-hydrogen bonds (C-H) are generally considered to be non-polar. This is because carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities, leading to a balanced distribution of electrons.

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O-H Bonds

Oxygen-hydrogen bonds (O-H) are highly polar. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, pulling the shared electrons closer to itself, creating a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom.

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Vitamin A Solubility

Vitamin A, being mostly non-polar due to its many C-H bonds, dissolves in fats and oils but not in water. This is because fats and oils are also mostly non-polar.

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Vitamin C Solubility

Vitamin C is polar due to its multiple polar O-H bonds. This makes it soluble in water, a polar solvent.

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Hydrophilic Molecules

Molecules that are attracted to water and dissolve in it are called hydrophilic. They are usually polar.

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Examples of Polar Solutes

Ethanol, glucose, and methylamine are all polar molecules and therefore dissolve in water.

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Non-Polar Compounds in Water

Compounds that are mostly non-polar, like fats and oils, do not mix with water. They are said to be insoluble in water.

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Hydrophobic

Describes non-polar molecules that do not readily dissolve in water because water prefers to interact with itself.

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Hydrocarbon

A non-polar chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms found in many organic molecules, including fats and oils.

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What makes a molecule hydrophobic?

A molecule is hydrophobic if it is primarily composed of non-polar bonds, such as C-H and C-C bonds, which do not interact strongly with water.

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What's the difference between benzoic acid and acetic acid?

Both have a polar -COOH group but benzoic acid also has a large non-polar benzene portion, making it less soluble in water compared to acetic acid.

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What are fatty acids?

Fatty acids have a polar head (carboxylic acid group) and a non-polar tail (hydrocarbon chain).

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What are micelles?

Micelles are structures formed by fatty acids in water, where hydrophobic tails cluster together and hydrophilic heads face outward towards water.

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How do soaps work?

Soaps are made of fatty acids, which form micelles that trap dirt and grease within their hydrophobic tails, allowing them to be washed away with water.

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What is the relationship between polarity and solubility?

Polar molecules tend to dissolve in polar solvents (like water), while non-polar molecules tend to dissolve in non-polar solvents.

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Solubility of Solids in Water

The ability of a solid substance to dissolve in water. This property is influenced by factors such as temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solid itself.

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Effect of Temperature on Solubility

The solubility of most solids in water increases with increasing temperature. This is because higher temperatures provide more energy for the solid to overcome its attraction to itself and dissolve.

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Exceptions to Temperature Solubility

Some solids, such as sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and cerium sulfate (Ce2(SO4)3), exhibit a decrease in solubility with increasing temperature, making their behavior less predictable.

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Why does oil float on water?

Oil, composed mainly of non-polar C-H bonds, is hydrophobic and does not interact favorably with polar water molecules. These weak interactions lead to oil forming separate layers on top of water.

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Micelles: How do they form?

Micelles are spherical structures formed when hydrophobic molecules (like fats) are surrounded by water. The hydrophobic tails of the molecules cluster together in the core, while the hydrophilic heads interact with water.

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Importance of Water Solubility

The solubility of substances in water is crucial for many biological and chemical processes. It affects nutrient uptake, waste removal, and overall cell function.

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Solubility of Gases in Water

The solubility of gases in water generally decreases with increasing temperature. This means that less gas can dissolve in warmer water compared to colder water.

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Pressure and Gas Solubility

The solubility of gases in water increases with increasing pressure. This means that more gas can dissolve in water under higher pressure.

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What is the relationship between temperature and solubility?

The solubility of solids in water generally increases with increasing temperature, while the solubility of gases in water generally decreases with increasing temperature.

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What factors affect the solubility of gases?

The solubility of gases in water is affected by both temperature and pressure. Increasing temperature decreases solubility, while increasing pressure increases solubility.

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How does CO2 dissolve in the ocean?

As the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increases due to human activities, more CO2 dissolves in the ocean. This is because the increased pressure of CO2 above the ocean's surface increases its solubility.

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Give an example of how temperature impacts solubility in the real world.

Trout, which need well-oxygenated water, live in colder water with higher oxygen concentrations. Carp, which can handle lower oxygen concentrations, can live in warm ponds.

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Why is solubility of gases important in the ocean?

The solubility of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ocean impacts marine life and the global carbon cycle. Changes in temperature and pressure can affect the amount of these gases in the ocean, with potential consequences for marine ecosystems.

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What is pH?

pH measures how acidic or basic a solution is on a scale from 0 to 14. Acids have a pH less than 7, bases have a pH greater than 7, and neutral solutions have a pH of 7.

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What does pH tell us?

pH tells us the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. The higher the concentration of H+, the more acidic the solution, and the lower the pH.

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How does pH change with H+ concentration?

pH decreases as the concentration of H+ increases, and pH increases as the concentration of H+ decreases.

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What is the relationship between pH and acidity?

The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution. So a pH of 1 is much more acidic than a pH of 6.

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Ocean Acidification

When CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves into the ocean, it creates carbonic acid, which increases the acidity of the ocean and lowers its pH.

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What does ocean acidification affect?

Increased acidity in the ocean can harm marine life, making it difficult for organisms like coral reefs, shellfish, and plankton to build their shells and skeletons.

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How does pH affect marine life?

Marine organisms have a narrow range of pH tolerance. Ocean acidification can disrupt their metabolic processes, making it difficult for them to survive and thrive.

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What can we do to combat ocean acidification?

Reducing our carbon emissions is crucial to slow down and ultimately reverse ocean acidification.

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How does pH change with acidic/basic solutions?

A decrease of one pH unit represents a tenfold increase in acidity (more H+ ions). An increase in pH by one unit indicates a tenfold decrease in acidity (fewer H+ ions).

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Lemon Juice Acidity

Lemon juice is acidic, meaning it has a high concentration of H+ ions and a pH value less than 7.

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NaOH - Basic or Acidic?

NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) is a strong base. It has a high concentration of OH- ions and a pH value greater than 7.

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Pure Water - Acidic, Basic, or Neutral?

Pure water is neutral. It has an equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions, resulting in a pH of 7.

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C-H Bonds: Non-polar

Carbon-hydrogen bonds (C-H) are generally considered non-polar because carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities, resulting in a balanced distribution of electrons.

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O-H Bonds: Polar

Oxygen-hydrogen bonds (O-H) are highly polar because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, pulling the shared electrons closer to itself, creating a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom.

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Why is Vitamin A fat-soluble?

Vitamin A is mostly non-polar due to its many C-H bonds, making it soluble in fats and oils, but not in water.

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Why is Vitamin C water-soluble?

Vitamin C is polar due to its multiple polar O-H bonds, making it soluble in water, a polar solvent.

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Insoluble Compounds: Non-polar

Compounds that are mostly non-polar, like fats and oils, do not mix with water and are considered insoluble.

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What are hydrophobic molecules?

Hydrophobic molecules are non-polar and don't readily dissolve in water because water prefers to interact with itself.

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Micelles

Spherical structures formed by hydrophobic molecules in water. They have a hydrophobic core (non-polar tails) surrounded by hydrophilic heads (polar heads) facing outwards.

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Temperature and Solubility (Solids)

The solubility of most solids in water increases with increasing temperature.

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Temperature and Solubility (Gases)

The solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.

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Pressure and Solubility (Gases)

The solubility of gases in water increases with increasing pressure.

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Oil and Water

Oil is hydrophobic and does not mix with water because it is primarily composed of non-polar C-H bonds.

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Non-Polar Solutes

Substances that do not readily dissolve in water because water prefers to interact with itself. These molecules are often referred to as 'hydrophobic'.

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Benzoic Acid vs. Acetic Acid

Both have a polar -COOH group, but benzoic acid also has a large non-polar benzene portion, making it less soluble in water compared to acetic acid.

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What is a solution?

A homogenous mixture of two or more substances. The substance being dissolved is the solute, and the substance doing the dissolving is the solvent.

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What is an aqueous solution?

A solution where the solvent is water (H2O).

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What is solubility?

A solute's ability to dissolve in a solvent.

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Give three factors affecting solubility.

  1. Solute molecule structure/polarity: Polar molecules dissolve better in polar solvents, and non-polar molecules dissolve better in non-polar solvents. 2. Temperature: Solubility of most solids increases with temperature, while solubility of gases decreases with temperature. 3. Pressure: Pressure mainly affects the solubility of gases, where higher pressure increases solubility.
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What does 'polar' mean in chemistry?

A molecule is polar if it has a slightly positive and a slightly negative side due to uneven sharing of electrons.

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Why do oil and water not mix?

Oil is non-polar, while water is polar. They don't mix because their molecules are too different to form strong bonds.

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What is a micelle?

A spherical structure formed by hydrophobic molecules (like fats) in water. The hydrophobic tails cluster inside, while the hydrophilic heads face outward towards water.

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Why is water solubility important in nature?

Many biological processes rely on water. Solubility determines how nutrients are absorbed, wastes are removed, and cells function.

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Temperature's effect on solubility (solids)

For most solids, their solubility in water INCREASES as the temperature INCREASES. This means more of the solid can dissolve in hotter water. However, there are exceptions to this rule.

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Temperature's effect on solubility (gases)

The solubility of gases in water DECREASES as the temperature INCREASES. This means less gas can dissolve in warmer water. This is why cold water holds more oxygen for fish.

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How does CO2 affect the ocean?

As the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increases due to human activities, more CO2 dissolves into the ocean. This increased CO2 leads to a decrease in the ocean's pH, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification.

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Why is ocean acidification a problem?

Ocean acidification can harm marine life. It makes it harder for organisms like coral reefs and shellfish to build their shells and skeletons, disrupting the ocean ecosystem.

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What is a good example of temperature affecting solubility in nature?

Trout (cold-water fish) need well-oxygenated water, so they live in colder water which holds more oxygen. Carp (warm-water fish) can handle lower oxygen concentrations and can live in warm ponds.

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Can you predict the solubility of solids?

Predicting the solubility of solids in water is often tricky. It's not always a simple rule like 'hotter is better.' There are many factors that influence solubility.

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Why is the solubility of gases important?

The solubility of gases in the ocean is crucial for marine life and the global carbon cycle. It affects things like oxygen levels for fish and the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean.

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pH

A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is, ranging from 0 to 14. Lower pH means more acidic, higher pH means more basic.

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Neutral

A solution with a pH of 7, like pure water. It has a balanced concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).

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What happens when pH decreases by 1 unit?

The solution becomes 10 times more acidic. This means the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) increases by 10 times.

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What happens when pH increases by 1 unit?

The solution becomes 10 times less acidic (more basic). This means the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) decreases by 10 times.

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Study Notes

Water: Solutions

  • Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components.
  • Solution components can be liquids, gases, or solids.
  • Solvent: the dissolving medium (usually the major component).
  • Solute: the substance being dissolved.
  • Examples of solutions: air, natural gas; vodka, antifreeze; brass; carbonated water; seawater, sugar solution; hydrogen in platinum.
  • Aqueous solution: a solution in which the solvent is water (Hâ‚‚O).
  • Water is a common solvent.

Factors Affecting Solubility

  • Molecular structure/polarity affects solubility.
  • Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents (e.g., water dissolves sugars and salts).
  • Non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents (e.g., fats and oils are mostly non-polar).
  • Examples of non-polar substances: vitamin A, fats, oils, and hydrocarbons.
  • Examples of polar substances: glucose, sugars, alcohols, and other molecules with polar bonds like O-H or N-H.
  • Three major factors impacting solubility:
    • Solute molecule structure/polarity
    • Temperature
    • Pressure

Temperature

  • In general, solubility of solids in water increases with increasing temperature.
  • Solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.
    • e.g., less oxygen dissolves in warm water than in cold water.

Pressure

  • Pressure is important when dissolving gaseous solutes.
  • Increasing pressure increases the amount of gas dissolved in water. -e.g., as the amount of COâ‚‚ above oceans increases, the amount of COâ‚‚ entering the ocean also increases.

pH Scale

  • pH: a measure of how acidic or basic a solution.
  • pH scale: a range of pH values generally from 0 to 14.
  • Acids: aqueous solutions with a pH < 7.
  • Examples: hydrochloric acid (HCl), lemon juice, vinegar.
  • Bases: aqueous solutions with a pH > 7.
    • Examples: sodium hydroxide (NaOH), soap, drain cleaner.
  • Neutral: a solution with a pH of 7.
    • Example: pure water.
  • pH=-log[H+] where [H+] is the concentration or amount of H+.
  • Since working with a "log" scale: Increasing pH by 1 unit means a 10x lower hydrogen ion concentration. Decreasing pH by 1 unit indicates a 10x higher hydrogen ion concentration.

Additional Notes

  • Soaps are made up of fatty acid molecules.
  • Fatty acids have a hydrophilic (polar) head and a hydrophobic (non-polar) tail.
  • Fatty acids can form micelles in water.
  • The pH scale is logarithmic.
  • Changes in pH have substantial effects on aquatic ecosystems and organisms.

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