Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is an example of a secondary cell?
Which of the following is an example of a secondary cell?
- Lead-acid battery (correct)
- Zinc-air battery
- Alkaline battery
- Lithium primary battery
Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are used as primary cells.
Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are used as primary cells.
False (B)
What is the primary product of the reaction in a typical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?
What is the primary product of the reaction in a typical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?
Water
In a zinc-air battery, one of the reactants is ________ from the surrounding air.
In a zinc-air battery, one of the reactants is ________ from the surrounding air.
What is a major cause for the loss of performance in batteries?
What is a major cause for the loss of performance in batteries?
Match the following battery types with their characteristics:
Match the following battery types with their characteristics:
The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery involves lead metal reacting with ________.
The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery involves lead metal reacting with ________.
What is the role of hydrogen in a fuel cell?
What is the role of hydrogen in a fuel cell?
Which atomic nuclei are the most prevalent in the composition of the sun?
Which atomic nuclei are the most prevalent in the composition of the sun?
Cosmic rays are measured in kJ/mol.
Cosmic rays are measured in kJ/mol.
What radioactive isotope is produced when a free neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus?
What radioactive isotope is produced when a free neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus?
The process of spontaneous radioactive decay results in the emission of particles and the formation of a ______ atom.
The process of spontaneous radioactive decay results in the emission of particles and the formation of a ______ atom.
Match the following radiations with their characteristic behavior:
Match the following radiations with their characteristic behavior:
What is the sum of the atomic and mass numbers in a nuclear reaction?
What is the sum of the atomic and mass numbers in a nuclear reaction?
Beta rays carry a positive charge.
Beta rays carry a positive charge.
What is the nuclide symbol for a neutron?
What is the nuclide symbol for a neutron?
What does a double vertical line (||) represent in galvanic cell notation?
What does a double vertical line (||) represent in galvanic cell notation?
Electrochemical cells are at standard state when the electrolyte concentrations are 1 M and the partial pressure of gas is 2 atm.
Electrochemical cells are at standard state when the electrolyte concentrations are 1 M and the partial pressure of gas is 2 atm.
What is the term used to describe the maximum work obtainable from an electrochemical cell?
What is the term used to describe the maximum work obtainable from an electrochemical cell?
At the anode, some _____ occurs and cations dissolve into solution, leaving a negative charge.
At the anode, some _____ occurs and cations dissolve into solution, leaving a negative charge.
Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
What occurs if a galvanic cell does not have a salt bridge?
What occurs if a galvanic cell does not have a salt bridge?
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals in contact with a solution do not undergo redox reactions.
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals in contact with a solution do not undergo redox reactions.
What happens to a nucleus with more protons than neutrons as atomic number increases?
What happens to a nucleus with more protons than neutrons as atomic number increases?
What happens at the cathode in terms of ionic movement?
What happens at the cathode in terms of ionic movement?
Isotopes above the band of stability tend to undergo beta decay to gain stability.
Isotopes above the band of stability tend to undergo beta decay to gain stability.
What is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons called?
What is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons called?
The band of stability ceases to exist at Z = _____ where all nuclei are unstable.
The band of stability ceases to exist at Z = _____ where all nuclei are unstable.
Match the type of decay with the corresponding nucleus condition:
Match the type of decay with the corresponding nucleus condition:
Which particle is primarily responsible for overcoming the coulombic repulsion in the nucleus?
Which particle is primarily responsible for overcoming the coulombic repulsion in the nucleus?
Heavier nuclei exclusively undergo beta decay to reach stability.
Heavier nuclei exclusively undergo beta decay to reach stability.
Which element's decay series produces a stable product of 206Pb?
Which element's decay series produces a stable product of 206Pb?
Which type of radiation has the highest penetrating power?
Which type of radiation has the highest penetrating power?
Beta radiation is considered less dangerous than alpha radiation because it has lower energy.
Beta radiation is considered less dangerous than alpha radiation because it has lower energy.
What is the purpose of using 'hardened' materials in electronic devices in space?
What is the purpose of using 'hardened' materials in electronic devices in space?
The _____ counter is a portable device used to measure radioactivity.
The _____ counter is a portable device used to measure radioactivity.
Match the following radiation detection methods with their descriptions:
Match the following radiation detection methods with their descriptions:
What is a consequence of the single event effect in electronics?
What is a consequence of the single event effect in electronics?
Most beta particles cannot penetrate several centimeters into the body.
Most beta particles cannot penetrate several centimeters into the body.
What is the primary advantage of using the photomultiplier tube in radiation detection?
What is the primary advantage of using the photomultiplier tube in radiation detection?
What is the term used to describe the amount of material required to sustain a chain reaction?
What is the term used to describe the amount of material required to sustain a chain reaction?
All fission reactions occur spontaneously without any external influence.
All fission reactions occur spontaneously without any external influence.
What nuclear reaction occurs when a large fissile nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei?
What nuclear reaction occurs when a large fissile nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei?
In fission, the neutrons produced can induce further fission, leading to a __________ reaction.
In fission, the neutrons produced can induce further fission, leading to a __________ reaction.
Match the following processes with their descriptions:
Match the following processes with their descriptions:
Which of the following nuclei undergo fission?
Which of the following nuclei undergo fission?
Fission and fusion both produce heavier and more stable nuclei.
Fission and fusion both produce heavier and more stable nuclei.
What is emitted during the fission of uranium-235 that can trigger further fissions?
What is emitted during the fission of uranium-235 that can trigger further fissions?
What type of corrosion occurs when two different metals are in contact with an electrolyte?
What type of corrosion occurs when two different metals are in contact with an electrolyte?
Aluminum corrosion is problematic compared to iron corrosion.
Aluminum corrosion is problematic compared to iron corrosion.
What is formed when iron reacts with oxygen?
What is formed when iron reacts with oxygen?
Corrosion occurs through chemical reactions with the ________.
Corrosion occurs through chemical reactions with the ________.
Match the type of corrosion with its description:
Match the type of corrosion with its description:
Which of the following redox processes occurs at the anode?
Which of the following redox processes occurs at the anode?
The product of aluminum corrosion is beneficial and protects the underlying metal.
The product of aluminum corrosion is beneficial and protects the underlying metal.
What is the primary function of standard reduction potentials in electrochemistry?
What is the primary function of standard reduction potentials in electrochemistry?
What indicates that a half-reaction proceeds as a reduction?
What indicates that a half-reaction proceeds as a reduction?
The half-reaction with a more negative standard reduction potential is the cathode.
The half-reaction with a more negative standard reduction potential is the cathode.
What is the relationship between standard reduction potentials and oxidizing or reducing agents?
What is the relationship between standard reduction potentials and oxidizing or reducing agents?
In a galvanic cell, the half-reaction with the more positive reduction potential is the ______.
In a galvanic cell, the half-reaction with the more positive reduction potential is the ______.
What is calculated to find the overall cell potential for a galvanic cell?
What is calculated to find the overall cell potential for a galvanic cell?
The standard reduction potential is measured against a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
The standard reduction potential is measured against a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
What does a large negative standard reduction potential indicate about a substance?
What does a large negative standard reduction potential indicate about a substance?
Which factor speeds up the corrosion reaction of iron in water?
Which factor speeds up the corrosion reaction of iron in water?
Galvanic corrosion occurs only when two metals are in direct contact with each other.
Galvanic corrosion occurs only when two metals are in direct contact with each other.
What is the standard electrode used in cell potential measurements?
What is the standard electrode used in cell potential measurements?
When iron corrodes, it is oxidized while _____ from the air is reduced.
When iron corrodes, it is oxidized while _____ from the air is reduced.
What characteristic does a voltmeter measure in a galvanic cell?
What characteristic does a voltmeter measure in a galvanic cell?
What is required for ion mobility between anodic and cathodic regions in a corrosion process?
What is required for ion mobility between anodic and cathodic regions in a corrosion process?
Different half-reactions do not have characteristic cell potentials associated with them.
Different half-reactions do not have characteristic cell potentials associated with them.
What type of electrolysis involves electrodes that are chemically inert?
What type of electrolysis involves electrodes that are chemically inert?
In electrolysis, the cathode always serves as the positive electrode.
In electrolysis, the cathode always serves as the positive electrode.
Which of the following statements is true about nuclei above Z = 83?
Which of the following statements is true about nuclei above Z = 83?
Neutrons play a significant role in minimizing coulombic repulsion among protons in a nucleus.
Neutrons play a significant role in minimizing coulombic repulsion among protons in a nucleus.
What is the primary purpose of electroplating?
What is the primary purpose of electroplating?
The Hall-Heroult process is used for the electrolytic refining of aluminum from ________.
The Hall-Heroult process is used for the electrolytic refining of aluminum from ________.
What process occurs when an isotope below the band of stability emits beta particles?
What process occurs when an isotope below the band of stability emits beta particles?
The energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons is called __________.
The energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons is called __________.
What is produced during the Hall-Heroult refining process besides aluminum metal?
What is produced during the Hall-Heroult refining process besides aluminum metal?
Match the following electrolysis types with their definitions:
Match the following electrolysis types with their definitions:
What type of decay results when there are more protons than necessary in a nucleus?
What type of decay results when there are more protons than necessary in a nucleus?
Match the following decay processes with their descriptions:
Match the following decay processes with their descriptions:
What ions are involved in the plating solution containing silver?
What ions are involved in the plating solution containing silver?
Which stable isotope is produced at the end of the decay series starting with 238U?
Which stable isotope is produced at the end of the decay series starting with 238U?
The flow of ions through the solution in electrolysis does not complete the circuit.
The flow of ions through the solution in electrolysis does not complete the circuit.
All nuclei experience alpha decay as a way to become more stable.
All nuclei experience alpha decay as a way to become more stable.
What is the binding energy (Eb) of helium-4 in joules?
What is the binding energy (Eb) of helium-4 in joules?
Helium-4 has a mass defect of 0.030377 u.
Helium-4 has a mass defect of 0.030377 u.
What are the magic numbers that indicate special stability in isotopes?
What are the magic numbers that indicate special stability in isotopes?
The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei is called ________.
The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei is called ________.
Match the following nuclear reactions with examples:
Match the following nuclear reactions with examples:
Which element has its binding energy per nucleon plotted to peak at?
Which element has its binding energy per nucleon plotted to peak at?
Most stable nuclei have odd numbers of both protons and neutrons.
Most stable nuclei have odd numbers of both protons and neutrons.
What is created during the fission of a heavy nucleus, such as uranium-235?
What is created during the fission of a heavy nucleus, such as uranium-235?
What is one of the primary components in the anode reaction of nickel-metal-hydride batteries?
What is one of the primary components in the anode reaction of nickel-metal-hydride batteries?
Fuel cells continuously supply reactants and remove products throughout their operation.
Fuel cells continuously supply reactants and remove products throughout their operation.
What is produced as a result of the reaction in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?
What is produced as a result of the reaction in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?
In a lead-acid battery, the cathode consists of ________.
In a lead-acid battery, the cathode consists of ________.
What is the primary benefit of zinc-air batteries?
What is the primary benefit of zinc-air batteries?
Corrosion has little to no impact on battery performance.
Corrosion has little to no impact on battery performance.
The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery produces PbSO4 and ________ ions.
The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery produces PbSO4 and ________ ions.
What is the primary charge rate mentioned for the electrolytic bath used in the copper plating process?
What is the primary charge rate mentioned for the electrolytic bath used in the copper plating process?
Lithium-ion batteries are heavier than traditional batteries used in most aircraft.
Lithium-ion batteries are heavier than traditional batteries used in most aircraft.
During the electrolysis process for gold plating, what is the duration given for the operation?
During the electrolysis process for gold plating, what is the duration given for the operation?
In order to deposit gold, the electrolysis cell uses ions of ________.
In order to deposit gold, the electrolysis cell uses ions of ________.
How much energy cost is incurred when running an electrolytic process at 0.15 V and 15.0 A for 2 hours if charged at $0.0500 per kWh?
How much energy cost is incurred when running an electrolytic process at 0.15 V and 15.0 A for 2 hours if charged at $0.0500 per kWh?
The anode of a lithium-ion battery is composed of ________.
The anode of a lithium-ion battery is composed of ________.
Match the following components of a lithium-ion battery with their roles:
Match the following components of a lithium-ion battery with their roles:
What mass of tin must be deposited to achieve adequate coating according to the provided content?
What mass of tin must be deposited to achieve adequate coating according to the provided content?
What particles are produced when a positron and an electron collide?
What particles are produced when a positron and an electron collide?
The activity of a radioactive sample is directly related to the number of nuclei present in the sample.
The activity of a radioactive sample is directly related to the number of nuclei present in the sample.
What is the decay constant for carbon-14 if its half-life is 5730 years?
What is the decay constant for carbon-14 if its half-life is 5730 years?
The _____ is the time required for half of a radioactive sample to disintegrate.
The _____ is the time required for half of a radioactive sample to disintegrate.
What is the SI unit of nuclear activity?
What is the SI unit of nuclear activity?
Match the following decay particles with their respective properties:
Match the following decay particles with their respective properties:
Radioactive decay consistently follows zero-order kinetics.
Radioactive decay consistently follows zero-order kinetics.
What happens to the activity of a radioactive sample over time?
What happens to the activity of a radioactive sample over time?
What is the Nernst equation used to calculate in electrochemical cells?
What is the Nernst equation used to calculate in electrochemical cells?
A galvanic cell has a positive cell potential and produces a positive Gibbs free energy change.
A galvanic cell has a positive cell potential and produces a positive Gibbs free energy change.
What is the Faraday constant value?
What is the Faraday constant value?
The formula for calculating Gibbs free energy change is ΔG = -nFE, where E is the __________.
The formula for calculating Gibbs free energy change is ΔG = -nFE, where E is the __________.
In the described galvanic cell with Cu and Ag, what would happen to the silver ions as the reaction proceeds?
In the described galvanic cell with Cu and Ag, what would happen to the silver ions as the reaction proceeds?
Match the following electrochemical reactions with their standard free energy change implications:
Match the following electrochemical reactions with their standard free energy change implications:
What is the reaction quotient (Q) in electrochemistry?
What is the reaction quotient (Q) in electrochemistry?
The equation relating cell potential to the equilibrium constant can be expressed as E = (RT/nF) ln K.
The equation relating cell potential to the equilibrium constant can be expressed as E = (RT/nF) ln K.
The cathode becomes the positive electrode during reduction in electrolysis.
The cathode becomes the positive electrode during reduction in electrolysis.
What process is used for the refining of aluminum from its oxide?
What process is used for the refining of aluminum from its oxide?
Electroplating involves depositing a thin coat of ________ on another metal using electrolysis.
Electroplating involves depositing a thin coat of ________ on another metal using electrolysis.
Match the following types of electrolysis with their characteristics:
Match the following types of electrolysis with their characteristics:
In electrolysis, what drives a redox reaction that would otherwise not occur spontaneously?
In electrolysis, what drives a redox reaction that would otherwise not occur spontaneously?
In electrolysis, the anode becomes the negative electrode.
In electrolysis, the anode becomes the negative electrode.
What ions are formed during the electroplating of silver?
What ions are formed during the electroplating of silver?
What is the primary method used for controlling high-energy plasma created in fusion reactions?
What is the primary method used for controlling high-energy plasma created in fusion reactions?
Ionizing radiation includes visible light, radio waves, and microwaves.
Ionizing radiation includes visible light, radio waves, and microwaves.
What effect does alpha radiation have on internal organs when produced inside the body?
What effect does alpha radiation have on internal organs when produced inside the body?
The penetrating power of a particle refers to how far it penetrates into a material before its energy is ______.
The penetrating power of a particle refers to how far it penetrates into a material before its energy is ______.
Match the type of radiation with its classification:
Match the type of radiation with its classification:
Which of the following can cause cell death through free radical formation?
Which of the following can cause cell death through free radical formation?
Alpha particles can penetrate deeply into matter due to their large size and charge.
Alpha particles can penetrate deeply into matter due to their large size and charge.
What are the two promising means to solve the confinement problem in fusion reactions?
What are the two promising means to solve the confinement problem in fusion reactions?
Which type of battery is primarily designed for single-use and cannot be recharged?
Which type of battery is primarily designed for single-use and cannot be recharged?
An alkaline battery operates with zinc as the cathode.
An alkaline battery operates with zinc as the cathode.
What is the primary function of a battery?
What is the primary function of a battery?
In lithium batteries, lithium serves as the __________.
In lithium batteries, lithium serves as the __________.
What happens to the equilibrium constant as cell potential increases?
What happens to the equilibrium constant as cell potential increases?
Match the following primary cells with their characteristics:
Match the following primary cells with their characteristics:
Zinc-air batteries are rechargeable.
Zinc-air batteries are rechargeable.
What is the typical composition of the electrolyte in an alkaline battery?
What is the typical composition of the electrolyte in an alkaline battery?
In a nickel-metal-hydride battery, which reactant is involved in the anode reaction?
In a nickel-metal-hydride battery, which reactant is involved in the anode reaction?
The primary product of a fuel cell reaction that combines hydrogen and oxygen is carbon dioxide.
The primary product of a fuel cell reaction that combines hydrogen and oxygen is carbon dioxide.
What major limitation affects battery performance?
What major limitation affects battery performance?
In a lead-acid battery, lead oxide is present at the ______.
In a lead-acid battery, lead oxide is present at the ______.
Match the following types of batteries with their characteristics:
Match the following types of batteries with their characteristics:
Which reaction represents the cathode reaction in a fuel cell?
Which reaction represents the cathode reaction in a fuel cell?
Zinc-air batteries utilize zinc as one of their reactants.
Zinc-air batteries utilize zinc as one of their reactants.
What happens to oxygen in a fuel cell?
What happens to oxygen in a fuel cell?
Which particle is negatively charged and emitted from the nucleus during beta decay?
Which particle is negatively charged and emitted from the nucleus during beta decay?
Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
What is the result of alpha decay in terms of atomic and mass numbers?
What is the result of alpha decay in terms of atomic and mass numbers?
Gamma rays are high-energy photons that are _______ by magnetic fields.
Gamma rays are high-energy photons that are _______ by magnetic fields.
Match the type of radiation with its charge and behavior in a magnetic field:
Match the type of radiation with its charge and behavior in a magnetic field:
Which of the following correctly describes a product of alpha decay?
Which of the following correctly describes a product of alpha decay?
A neutron decays into a proton, a beta particle, and an antineutrino during beta decay.
A neutron decays into a proton, a beta particle, and an antineutrino during beta decay.
Identify the reactant and product nuclei in the alpha decay of Uranium-238.
Identify the reactant and product nuclei in the alpha decay of Uranium-238.
What is the maximum age limit for objects that can be carbon dated?
What is the maximum age limit for objects that can be carbon dated?
The 14C/12C ratio remains constant in dead plants and animals.
The 14C/12C ratio remains constant in dead plants and animals.
What method is used to calibrate carbon dating?
What method is used to calibrate carbon dating?
The chart of the nuclides plots the number of protons against the number of ______.
The chart of the nuclides plots the number of protons against the number of ______.
What is the primary purpose of measuring the 14C/12C ratio in an artifact?
What is the primary purpose of measuring the 14C/12C ratio in an artifact?
Nuclides located in the sea of instability are stable.
Nuclides located in the sea of instability are stable.
What is the confidence range for age determination using carbon dating?
What is the confidence range for age determination using carbon dating?
What is produced when a positron and an electron collide?
What is produced when a positron and an electron collide?
The activity of a radioactive sample always increases over time.
The activity of a radioactive sample always increases over time.
The half-life of carbon-14 is __________ years.
The half-life of carbon-14 is __________ years.
Which of the following describes the relationship between half-life and decay constant?
Which of the following describes the relationship between half-life and decay constant?
Radioactive decay follows zero-order kinetics.
Radioactive decay follows zero-order kinetics.
What happens to the number of radioactive nuclei as they decay?
What happens to the number of radioactive nuclei as they decay?
What occurs when a nucleus has more protons than necessary?
What occurs when a nucleus has more protons than necessary?
All nuclei with atomic number above 83 are stable.
All nuclei with atomic number above 83 are stable.
Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from a collection of free _____ .
Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from a collection of free _____ .
Match the following types of emissions with their effects:
Match the following types of emissions with their effects:
What happens to heavier nuclei during decay?
What happens to heavier nuclei during decay?
Beta particles have higher penetrating power than alpha particles.
Beta particles have higher penetrating power than alpha particles.
What is the stable product of the decay series starting with 238U?
What is the stable product of the decay series starting with 238U?
What is a characteristic of gamma decay?
What is a characteristic of gamma decay?
Electron capture increases the nuclear charge of the nucleus.
Electron capture increases the nuclear charge of the nucleus.
What particle is emitted during positron decay?
What particle is emitted during positron decay?
During gamma decay, a nucleus returns to its ground state by emitting a _________.
During gamma decay, a nucleus returns to its ground state by emitting a _________.
Match the following types of decay with their descriptions:
Match the following types of decay with their descriptions:
Which of the following statements is true regarding beta decay?
Which of the following statements is true regarding beta decay?
Gamma decay affects the mass number of the nucleus.
Gamma decay affects the mass number of the nucleus.
What type of particle is represented by the symbol 0 -1 β?
What type of particle is represented by the symbol 0 -1 β?
What does a positive standard reduction potential indicate about a half-reaction?
What does a positive standard reduction potential indicate about a half-reaction?
A half-reaction with a lower reduction potential is considered a good oxidizing agent.
A half-reaction with a lower reduction potential is considered a good oxidizing agent.
What do you calculate to find the overall cell potential E°cell for a galvanic cell?
What do you calculate to find the overall cell potential E°cell for a galvanic cell?
Match the half-reactions with their roles in a galvanic cell:
Match the half-reactions with their roles in a galvanic cell:
Which of the following is true regarding the arrangement of standard reduction potentials?
Which of the following is true regarding the arrangement of standard reduction potentials?
A negative cell potential means reduction occurs at the anode.
A negative cell potential means reduction occurs at the anode.
Identify which half-reaction occurs at the anode in a galvanic cell.
Identify which half-reaction occurs at the anode in a galvanic cell.
What is the term used to describe the minimum amount of fissile material required to sustain a chain reaction?
What is the term used to describe the minimum amount of fissile material required to sustain a chain reaction?
Fission reactions occur only through spontaneous processes.
Fission reactions occur only through spontaneous processes.
What are the primary products of the fission reaction of uranium-235?
What are the primary products of the fission reaction of uranium-235?
During fission, a large nucleus splits into two smaller parts and also emits __________.
During fission, a large nucleus splits into two smaller parts and also emits __________.
Match the following fission-related terms with their descriptions:
Match the following fission-related terms with their descriptions:
What happens to neutrons produced during a fission reaction?
What happens to neutrons produced during a fission reaction?
Fission reactions only occur in uranium isotopes.
Fission reactions only occur in uranium isotopes.
What role do enriched uranium and neutrons play in the process of fission?
What role do enriched uranium and neutrons play in the process of fission?
Which type of radiation is known for having the highest penetrating power?
Which type of radiation is known for having the highest penetrating power?
Beta particles can pass several centimeters into the body and are often less dangerous than alpha particles.
Beta particles can pass several centimeters into the body and are often less dangerous than alpha particles.
What device is commonly used to detect radioactivity using a gas-filled tube?
What device is commonly used to detect radioactivity using a gas-filled tube?
The process of producing large numbers of ions from a single ionizing particle is known as the __________ effect.
The process of producing large numbers of ions from a single ionizing particle is known as the __________ effect.
Match the following types of radiation with their characteristics:
Match the following types of radiation with their characteristics:
What is one of the main reasons electronics in satellites are packaged in hardened materials?
What is one of the main reasons electronics in satellites are packaged in hardened materials?
Alpha particles can fully penetrate soft tissue and cause significant damage to vital organs.
Alpha particles can fully penetrate soft tissue and cause significant damage to vital organs.
What method uses a fluorescent screen to detect radioactivity by converting radiation into a detectable signal?
What method uses a fluorescent screen to detect radioactivity by converting radiation into a detectable signal?
What is the purpose of a film-badge dosimeter?
What is the purpose of a film-badge dosimeter?
Background radiation must be added to measurements of radioactive sources.
Background radiation must be added to measurements of radioactive sources.
What is the quality factor (Q) used for in radiation measurement?
What is the quality factor (Q) used for in radiation measurement?
In a Geiger-Mueller tube, radiation produces ______ in the gas.
In a Geiger-Mueller tube, radiation produces ______ in the gas.
Match the following medical imaging methods with their primary function:
Match the following medical imaging methods with their primary function:
Which type of radiation is most effective at penetrating human tissue?
Which type of radiation is most effective at penetrating human tissue?
X-ray radiation is absorbed equally by all types of tissues in the body.
X-ray radiation is absorbed equally by all types of tissues in the body.
What substance does the thyroid gland use to produce thyroid hormone?
What substance does the thyroid gland use to produce thyroid hormone?
What is the primary distinction between ionizing and nonionizing radiation?
What is the primary distinction between ionizing and nonionizing radiation?
What effect does ionizing radiation have on living tissue?
What effect does ionizing radiation have on living tissue?
The process by which radiation causes electrons to be ejected from atoms is called ________.
The process by which radiation causes electrons to be ejected from atoms is called ________.
Match the type of radiation with its characteristic feature:
Match the type of radiation with its characteristic feature:
Which method is used for confining the high-energy plasma in fusion reactions?
Which method is used for confining the high-energy plasma in fusion reactions?
Nonionizing radiation includes microwaves and radio waves.
Nonionizing radiation includes microwaves and radio waves.
The energy needed to initiate a fusion reaction typically exceeds the energy released, leading to a ________ situation.
The energy needed to initiate a fusion reaction typically exceeds the energy released, leading to a ________ situation.
Flashcards
Galvanic Cell Notation
Galvanic Cell Notation
A shorthand way to represent a galvanic cell, using vertical lines to separate components like electrodes and electrolytes. The anode is on the left, the cathode on the right.
Standard State of a Cell
Standard State of a Cell
A galvanic cell is at standard state when all electrolyte concentrations are 1 molar (1 M) and all gas pressures are 1 atmosphere (1 atm).
Half-Cell Charge Build-up
Half-Cell Charge Build-up
Before a salt bridge is added, a charge imbalance occurs between the electrode and the electrolyte in each half-cell.
Anode Charge
Anode Charge
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Cathode Charge
Cathode Charge
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Cell Potential (EMF)
Cell Potential (EMF)
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Salt Bridge Function
Salt Bridge Function
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Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
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Zinc-Air Battery Reactant
Zinc-Air Battery Reactant
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Secondary Cell
Secondary Cell
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Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery (anode)
Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery (anode)
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Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery (cathode)
Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery (cathode)
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Lead-Acid Battery Anode
Lead-Acid Battery Anode
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Lead-Acid Battery Cathode
Lead-Acid Battery Cathode
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Fuel Cell Reaction
Fuel Cell Reaction
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Fuel Cell: Oxygen Reduction
Fuel Cell: Oxygen Reduction
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Cosmic Ray Composition
Cosmic Ray Composition
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Cosmic Ray Energy Units
Cosmic Ray Energy Units
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Carbon-14 Formation
Carbon-14 Formation
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14C Radioactive Decay
14C Radioactive Decay
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Radioactive Decay Equation Format
Radioactive Decay Equation Format
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Nuclide Symbols for Particles
Nuclide Symbols for Particles
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Nuclear Reaction Balancing
Nuclear Reaction Balancing
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Alpha and Beta Rays
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Fission
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Fissionable Nucleus
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Induced Fission
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Chain Reaction
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Critical Mass
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Controlled Fission
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Fission Applications
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Fission vs. Fusion
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Band of Stability
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Beta Decay
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Positron Emission
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Electron Capture
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Alpha Decay
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Decay Series
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Strong Nuclear Force
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Binding Energy
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Alpha Particle
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Beta Particle
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Gamma Radiation
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Ionizing Radiation
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Penetrating Power
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Single Event Effect
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Scintillation Counter
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Geiger Counter
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Corrosion
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Uniform Corrosion
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Crevice Corrosion
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Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
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Galvanic Cell
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Electrolytic Cell
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Standard Reduction Potential (E°)
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Cell Potential
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Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
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Half-Cell Reaction
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Electrolyte
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Anode
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Cathode
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Standard Reduction Potential
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SHE
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Positive Standard Reduction Potential
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Negative Standard Reduction Potential
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Cell Potential (E°cell)
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Passive Electrolysis
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Active Electrolysis
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Electroplating
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Hall-Heroult Process
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Cathode in Electrolysis
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Anode in Electrolysis
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External Current Source in Electrolysis
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Mass Defect
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Magic Numbers
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Doubly Magic
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Nuclear Transmutation
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Nuclear Fission
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Nuclear Fusion
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Compound Nucleus
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Nickel-Metal-Hydride Battery
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Lead-Acid Battery
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Fuel Cell
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Nernst Equation
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Reaction Quotient (Q)
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Faraday Constant (F)
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Gibbs Free Energy Change (ΔG)
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Electrochemical Reaction and ΔG
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Equilibrium Constant (K)
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Relationship between E° and K
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Simplified Equation for E° and K
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Electrolysis Cost Calculation
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Electrolysis and Mass Calculation
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Dreamliner Battery Issues
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Lithium-Ion Battery Components
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Electrolysis Energy Cost
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Electrolysis and Mass Deposited
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Electrolysis Time Calculation
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Dreamliner Battery Design
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Half-life
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Activity
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Decay Constant
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Nuclear Equation Balancing
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Nuclide Symbols
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Matter-Antimatter Annihilation
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Magnetic Confinement
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Free Radicals
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Primary Battery
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Alkaline Battery
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Lithium Battery
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Zinc-Air Battery
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Battery Chemistry
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Anode Reaction in a Lead-Acid Battery
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Cathode Reaction in a Lead-Acid Battery
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Gamma Rays
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Parent Nucleus
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Daughter Nucleus
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What happens to the mass number during alpha decay?
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What happens to the atomic number during beta decay?
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How are gamma Rays different from alpha and beta particles?
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First-Order Kinetics
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Radiocarbon Dating
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Half-life of Carbon-14
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Carbon Dating Range
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Chart of the Nuclides
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Sea of Instability
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Nuclear Stability
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Example Problem 14.6
Example Problem 14.6
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Gamma Decay
Gamma Decay
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What does a gamma ray do to the atomic number and mass number of a nucleus?
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Why are gamma rays so energetic?
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Inertial Confinement
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Geiger-Mueller Tube
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Film-Badge Dosimeter
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Background Radiation
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Quality Factor (Q)
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Radioisotope Imaging
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X-Ray
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Ionizing Power
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Study Notes
Chapter Objectives
- Describe cosmic rays and how they affect Earth and its atmosphere
- Write, balance, and interpret equations for simple nuclear reactions
- Define and differentiate various modes of nuclear decay (alpha decay, beta decay, positron emission, electron capture)
- Interpret the kinetics of radioactive decay using first-order rate equations
- Use the chart of the nuclides to understand radioactive decay processes and how they affect nuclear stability
- Use Einstein's equation to calculate binding energies of nuclei and the energy changes of nuclear reactions
- Describe nuclear fission and fusion, and explain how both processes can be highly exothermic
- Discuss the potential of fission and fusion as energy sources and explain the pros and cons of each
- Explain how penetrating power and ionizing power combine to determine the effects of radiation on materials, including living tissue
- Describe how radioisotopes can be used in medical imaging techniques to monitor organ function
Corrosion
- Corrosion is the chemical degradation of metals by reactions with the environment
- Uniform corrosion occurs evenly over a large area of a metal
- Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals touch in the presence of an appropriate electrolyte
- Crevice corrosion occurs when two pieces of metal touch, leaving a small gap, accelerating the corrosion process
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Galvanic Cells
- Special conditions are needed for iron to react with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide
- Rust formation is a slow process, so the basic principles of electrochemistry must be investigated with reactions that are easier to observe
- Reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are redox reactions
- Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a chemical species
- Reduction is the gain of electrons to a chemical species
Oxidation-Reduction and Half-Reactions
- For an oxidation-reduction reaction, one reactant must be oxidized and one reactant must be reduced
- Oxidation cannot occur without reduction
- Copper placed in a silver nitrate solution undergoes a redox reaction
- The solution changes color, and crystals form on the copper wire
- The solution's blue color indicates Cu²⁺ ions in the solution
- Cu²⁺ is formed when a copper atom loses two electrons
- Copper metal is oxidized
- Silver is formed when a silver ion gains an electron
- The silver cation is reduced
- Half-reactions are written for the oxidation of copper and the reduction of silver
- Neither half-reaction can occur without the other
- The electron transfer must be balanced, so the reduction half-reaction is multiplied by 2
Building a Galvanic Cell
- A galvanic cell uses a spontaneous chemical reaction to generate an electric current
- To harness electricity from a galvanic cell, each half-reaction is prepared in half-cells
- Cu metal immersed in Cu²⁺ solution is one half-cell
- Ag metal immersed in Ag⁺ solution is the second half-cell
- A salt bridge is required to allow ions to flow between the half-cells, completing the circuit
Terminology for Galvanic Cells
- Electrodes are the electrically conducting sites where oxidation or reduction occurs
- The electrode with oxidation is the anode. The electrode with reduction is the cathode
- Cell notation is a shorthand for the specific chemistry of an electrochemical cell
- The anode is written on the left, and the cathode on the right
- A vertical line in cell notation denotes a phase boundary
- A double vertical line denotes a salt bridge
Standard Reduction Potentials
- To compare oxidation-reduction trends, all half-cell potentials are written as reductions
- A table of standard reduction potentials lists the potential of any half-reaction when connected to a SHE
- All materials in the table listed must be 1 M in aqueous solutions and 1 atm in partial pressure for gases
- When the half-reactions are listed as reductions, one half-reaction must be an oxidation and must be reversed
- The cell potential sign must be changed when writing a half-reaction as an oxidation
- Potentials are measured with a SHE connected to the positive terminal
- The half-reaction with the more positive reduction potential will be the cathode
- The half-reaction with the more negative reduction potential will be the anode
Nonstandard Conditions
- The cell potential under nonstandard conditions is calculated using the Nernst equation
Cell Potentials and Free Energy
- Corrosion is a spontaneous process
- The Gibbs free energy change for an electrochemical reaction can be calculated from the standard reduction potential
- The minus sign is required in the equation because a galvanic cell has a positive cell potential, spontaneously generates electrical work, and thus must have a negative ΔG value
Equilibrium Constants
- The cell potential can be used to calculate the equilibrium constant for an electrochemical reaction
- The relationship between the cell potential and the equilibrium constant can be rewritten using a common logarithm
- The equation can be simplified for reactions carried out at 25°C (298 K)
Batteries
- A battery is a cell or series of cells that generate an electrical current
- Batteries harness the electrical work of a galvanic cell
Primary Cells
- Single-use batteries that cannot be recharged are primary cells
- The most prevalent type of primary cell is the alkaline battery
- Alkaline battery has a zinc electrode at which oxidation occurs: Zn(s) + 2OH⁻(aq) → Zn(OH)₂(s) + 2e⁻
- The cathode is derived from manganese(IV) oxide: 2MnO₂(s) + H₂O(l) + 2e⁻ → Mn₂O₃(s) + 2OH⁻(aq)
- Lithium batteries are small and long lasting, and used in medical devices like pacemakers
- Lithium is the anode, Li(s) → Li⁺ + e⁻
- Manganese(IV) oxide is the cathode, MnO₂(s) + Li⁺ + e⁻ → LiMnO₂(s)
- Zinc-air batteries are also primary cells, where zinc is the anode and oxygen reacts at the cathode: Zn(s) + 2OH⁻(aq) → Zn(OH)₂(s) + 2e⁻ and O₂ (g) + H₂O(l) + 4e⁻ → 2OH⁻(aq).
Secondary Cells
- Rechargeable batteries
- Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are an example of secondary cells
- The anode reaction is MH(s) + OH⁻(aq) → M⁺ + H₂O(l) + e⁻.
- The complex cathode reaction can be represented as NiO(OH)(s) + H₂O(l) + e⁻ → Ni(OH)₂(s) + OH⁻(aq)
- Lead-acid storage batteries are secondary cells
Fuel Cells
- A fuel cell is a voltaic cell that continuously supplies reactants and removes products of the cell reaction
- Most common type uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce water
Limitations of Batteries
- Corrosion is a major cause for the loss of performance in batteries
- Protective plating is an attempt to limit corrosion on batteries
Electrolysis
- Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to drive a nonspontaneous chemical reaction
- Electrolytic cells can be passive (inert electrodes) or active (electrodes are part of the electrolytic reaction)
Electrolysis and Polarity
- Electrolysis changes the polarity of the electrodes
- For reduction, electrons are forced to the cathode(negative electrode)
- For oxidation, electrons are pulled from the anode(positive electrode)
Passive Electrolysis in Refining Aluminum
- Electrolysis overcomes the nonspontaneous reaction to separate aluminum from its oxide.
- The Hall-Heroult refining process uses inert carbon electrodes
Active Electrolysis and Electroplating
- The process of depositing metal by using electrolysis is electroplating
- Silver is plated onto electrical devices because silver is a good conductor and resistant to corrosion
- The solution used contains CN⁻(aq) ions, which form a complex with Ag⁺. This makes the uniform coatings an important step
- The object being electroplated is the cathode
Electrolysis and Stoichiometry
- Use controlled amounts of materials in electroplating
- Controlling the flow of electrons(current) in an electroplating operation provides a method to accurately limit the amount of material deposited
- Electroplating is used to prevent galvanic corrosion
Current and Charge
- When current is measured in an electric circuit, the observation is the flow of charge for a period of time
- The unit of current, the ampere (A) is defined as one coulomb per second (1 A = 1 Cs⁻¹)
- If a known current flows through a circuit for a known time, the charge can be easily calculated (Charge = current × time)
- Using Faraday's constant (F = 96,485 C mol⁻¹) and the calculated charge, the number of moles of electrons can be calculated
- If the number of electrons required to reduce each metal cation is known, the number of moles of plated material can be calculated
Example Problems
- Problems involving different topics related to electrolysis, calculations, and applications will be included
Nuclear Chemistry
- Section that will cover topics like cosmic rays, radioactive decay, nuclear stability, energetics of nuclear reactions, fission, fusion, and modern medical applications
Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating
- Cosmic rays are subatomic particles traveling at high speeds that bombard Earth, mostly atomic nuclei (87% hydrogen, 12% helium, rest heavier nuclei)
- Cosmic rays originate from solar flares
- The energies of cosmic rays are much higher compared to chemical energies.
- Formation of radioactive 14C via interactions with gas molecules in the atmosphere
- Terrestrial carbon has 98.9% 12C and 1.11% 13C (both stable)
- 14C is unstable and undergoes radioactive decay
- Nuclear reactions are written in format similar to chemical reactions, reactants and products are particles/atoms (not molecules)
- Nuclide symbols (e.g., 146C)represent the composition of a nuclide (mass number/atomic number)
Radioactive Decay
- Types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) and their properties
- Alpha decay: a parent nucleus emits an alpha particle (a helium nucleus, ⁴He₂), decreasing the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2
- Beta decay: a neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton, a beta particle (electron, ⁰β⁻₁), and an antineutrino, increasing the atomic number by 1
- Gamma decay: the nucleus emits a gamma ray (high-energy photon, 𝛾), which is unaffected by magnetic fields
Electron Capture and Positron Emission
- Electron capture: the nucleus captures an electron, converting a proton to a neutron, decreasing the nuclear charge by one (reverse of beta emission)
- Positron emission: a proton in the nucleus decays into a neutron, positron (b⁺, positive electron), and a neutrino
- Matter-antimatter annihilation occurs when a positron encounters an electron, producing two gamma rays
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
- Activity of a sample of nuclei is the rate of disintegration (ΔN/Δt)
- SI unit for nuclear activity is the becquerel (Bq)
- The curie (Ci) is an older unit defined as the number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of radium-226 (1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq)
- Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics
- Half-life (t₁/₂): the time required for half of the sample to disintegrate
Radiocarbon Dating
- 14C is formed continuously from cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere
- 14C is incorporated into living plants and animals
- The 14C/12C ratio remains constant over time in living organisms
- When an organism dies, 14C incorporation stops and its activity decreases
- Artifact age is determined by measuring the 14C/12C ratio in the artifact relative to the ratio in today's atmosphere and applying first-order kinetics equations in decay
Nuclear Stability
- Chart of the Nuclides: a plot of atomic number versus neutron number for all known stable nuclei
- Stable nuclides are clustered in a region called the band of stability, generally with even numbers of protons and neutrons
- Nuclides outside the band of stability (sea of instability) tend to decay
Nuclear Stability
- The band of stability ends at Z = 83
- Beyond Z = 83, all nuclei are unstable and decay to reach a stable nucleus
- Heavier nuclei decay through a series of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is formed
- Alpha decay lowers the proton and neutron numbers of a nucleus quickly
- A decay series is a sequence of radioactive decays a nucleus undergoes to reach a stable isotopes
Energetics of Nuclear Reactions
- Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its nucleons
- Binding energy is also the energy required to take apart a nucleus: the greater the value, the more stable the nucleus
- Mass defect (Δm) = difference between calculated mass and measured mass; helps calculate binding energy by using the equation E=mc²
Binding Energy
- Helium-4 atom: composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, mass defect and binding energy
Magic Numbers and Nuclear Shells
- Many stable nuclei have an even number of both protons and neutrons
- Isotopes with atomic numbers (Z) or neutron numbers (N) of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, or 184 exhibit special stability (magic numbers)
- Nuclei with both Z and N as magic numbers (doubly magic) show enhanced stability
Transmutation, Fission, and Fusion
- Three categories of nuclear reactions: transmutation (one nucleus changes to another), fission (heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei), fusion (light nuclei merge into a heavier nucleus)
- Transmutation: examples that include neutron capture producing an unstable intermediate/compound nucleus (which decays almost instantly)
- Fission: induced by neutron bombardment, a large fissile nucleus absorbs a neutron, becomes a compound nucleus that splits into smaller parts, emitting more neutrons (chain reaction)
Fission
- Fissile nuclei: those that readily undergo fission
- Some fission reactions are spontaneous, others are initiated by neutron bombardment
- Chain reaction in fission: produced neutrons are used to instigate further fission if enough fissile material remains
- Critical mass: amount of material to sustain a chain reaction
- Controlled fission can generate electricity
Nuclear Reactors
- Fissionable material: for commercial reactors, 235U
- Uranium enrichment: increasing the proportion of 235U in natural uranium. This is essential for efficient chain reactions
- Uranium oxide fuel is embedded into fuel rods and placed in a water-covered reactor core
- The water in the reactor slows down the fast neutrons (moderates the reactor)
Nuclear Waste
- Several fission products are radioactive and concentrated in spent fuel rods, called high-level nuclear waste.
- Spent fuel rods can be reprocessed into new fuel rods but is not common practice in the US.
- High-level waste is stored on-site at the reactor
Nuclear Waste Management
- Yucca Mountain was considered for high-level nuclear waste storage because of its remote location, dry climate, deep water level which is considered a long-term solution
Fusion
- In the sun, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus, releasing energy (step-wise process)
- Deuterium (²H) and tritium (³H) are used for fusion reaction
- Fusion produces more energy per nucleus than fission, as it needs to overcome the repulsion between positive charged nucleons. This can be achieved through using extremely high temperatures
- Confinement methods like magnetic confinement or inertial confinement are necessary for controlling fusion reactions
Interaction of Radiation and Matter
- Factors influencing radiation effects on matter (amount of radiation, penetrating power, ionizing power)
- Ionizing radiation (e.g. alpha, beta, gamma rays, X-rays) can cause significant damage to materials, including living tissue, due to free radical formation
- Alpha particles have high ionizing power but low penetrating power
- Beta particles have lower ionizing but somewhat higher penetrating power than alpha particles
- Gamma rays and X-rays have high penetrating power and lower ionizing power.
Modern Medical Imaging Methods
- Radioisotopes help create images of specific organs using techniques like positron emission tomography (PET)
- X-ray images are based on radiation absorption; materials with high density absorb X-rays more strongly
- Radioisotopes are introduced into target organs based on their biochemistry (i.e iodine-131 is tracked to identify thyroid function)
- Positron emission tomography (PET) produces high-quality medical images of specific body organs by tracking the emission of positrons. The short half-life of positrons leads them to produce high quality images, allowing detailed analysis
Methods of Detecting Radiation
- Methods, including zinc sulfide phosphor, scintillation counter, Geiger-Mueller tube, and film-badge dosimeter, are used to measure radiation
Measuring Radiation Dose
- Interplay of ionizing power and penetrating power results in a number of ways to express radiation dose
- Quality factor (Q): used to calculate equivalent dose (relative biological effectiveness = RBE); varies from 1 for high-energy photons to about 20 for alpha particles
Table 14.2
- Definitions and units used to quantify exposure to radiation (Exposure, Absorbed Dose, Equivalent Dose)
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Test your knowledge on batteries, including secondary cells and their characteristics, as well as fundamental concepts in nuclear chemistry. This quiz includes topics ranging from fuel cells to radioactive decay. Challenge yourself to match terms and answer specific questions related to these important chemical processes.
