Chemistry Quiz on Batteries and Nuclear Reactions
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is an example of a secondary cell?

  • Lead-acid battery (correct)
  • Zinc-air battery
  • Alkaline battery
  • Lithium primary battery

    • Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are used as primary cells.

    False

    What is the primary product of the reaction in a typical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?

    Water

    In a zinc-air battery, one of the reactants is ________ from the surrounding air.

    <p>oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major cause for the loss of performance in batteries?

    <p>Corrosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following battery types with their characteristics:

    <p>Zinc-air battery = Uses oxygen from the air Nickel-metal-hydride battery = Rechargeable secondary cell Lead-acid battery = Commonly used in cars Fuel cell = Produces water continuously</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery involves lead metal reacting with ________.

    <p>HSO4-</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hydrogen in a fuel cell?

    <p>It is oxidized at the anode.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which atomic nuclei are the most prevalent in the composition of the sun?

    <p>Hydrogen and helium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosmic rays are measured in kJ/mol.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What radioactive isotope is produced when a free neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus?

    <p>14C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of spontaneous radioactive decay results in the emission of particles and the formation of a ______ atom.

    <p>nitrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following radiations with their characteristic behavior:

    <p>Alpha rays = Stopped by thin aluminum Beta rays = Pass through aluminum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sum of the atomic and mass numbers in a nuclear reaction?

    <p>Must equal on both sides of the equation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta rays carry a positive charge.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the nuclide symbol for a neutron?

    <p>01 n</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a double vertical line (||) represent in galvanic cell notation?

    <p>Salt bridge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrochemical cells are at standard state when the electrolyte concentrations are 1 M and the partial pressure of gas is 2 atm.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the maximum work obtainable from an electrochemical cell?

    <p>Electromotive force (EMF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At the anode, some _____ occurs and cations dissolve into solution, leaving a negative charge.

    <p>oxidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Anode = Electrode where oxidation occurs Cathode = Electrode where reduction occurs Salt bridge = Connects two half-cells Cell potential = Potential for electrical work</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs if a galvanic cell does not have a salt bridge?

    <p>Local charges build up around both electrodes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals in contact with a solution do not undergo redox reactions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to a nucleus with more protons than neutrons as atomic number increases?

    <p>It requires additional neutrons to maintain stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens at the cathode in terms of ionic movement?

    <p>Cations are removed from solution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Isotopes above the band of stability tend to undergo beta decay to gain stability.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons called?

    <p>binding energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The band of stability ceases to exist at Z = _____ where all nuclei are unstable.

    <p>83</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of decay with the corresponding nucleus condition:

    <p>Beta decay = More neutrons than protons Positron emission = More protons than neutrons Alpha decay = Heavy nuclei Electron capture = Higher proton count</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which particle is primarily responsible for overcoming the coulombic repulsion in the nucleus?

    <p>Neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Heavier nuclei exclusively undergo beta decay to reach stability.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element's decay series produces a stable product of 206Pb?

    <p>238U</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of radiation has the highest penetrating power?

    <p>Gamma particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta radiation is considered less dangerous than alpha radiation because it has lower energy.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using 'hardened' materials in electronic devices in space?

    <p>To protect against cosmic rays.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ counter is a portable device used to measure radioactivity.

    <p>Geiger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following radiation detection methods with their descriptions:

    <p>Geiger Counter = Measures radioactivity using ionization of gas Scintillation Counter = Uses fluorescent screens to detect radiation Photomultiplier Tube = Amplifies electronic signals from radiation detection Zinc Sulfide Phosphor = Produces light flashes when struck by radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of the single event effect in electronics?

    <p>Catastrophic failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most beta particles cannot penetrate several centimeters into the body.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using the photomultiplier tube in radiation detection?

    <p>It amplifies the electronic signal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the amount of material required to sustain a chain reaction?

    <p>Critical mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All fission reactions occur spontaneously without any external influence.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What nuclear reaction occurs when a large fissile nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei?

    <p>Fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In fission, the neutrons produced can induce further fission, leading to a __________ reaction.

    <p>chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Fission = Splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei Fusion = Combining light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus Induced fission = Fission triggered by neutron bombardment Spontaneous fission = Fission that occurs without external influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following nuclei undergo fission?

    <p>Uranium-235</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fission and fusion both produce heavier and more stable nuclei.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emitted during the fission of uranium-235 that can trigger further fissions?

    <p>Neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of corrosion occurs when two different metals are in contact with an electrolyte?

    <p>Galvanic corrosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aluminum corrosion is problematic compared to iron corrosion.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is formed when iron reacts with oxygen?

    <p>Iron(III) oxide or rust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Corrosion occurs through chemical reactions with the ________.

    <p>environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of corrosion with its description:

    <p>Uniform corrosion = Even degradation of metal surface Galvanic corrosion = Corrosion between different metals Crevice corrosion = Occurs in small gaps between metals Pitting corrosion = Localized form of corrosion creating small holes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following redox processes occurs at the anode?

    <p>Oxidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The product of aluminum corrosion is beneficial and protects the underlying metal.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of standard reduction potentials in electrochemistry?

    <p>To calculate cell potentials and predict reaction spontaneity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates that a half-reaction proceeds as a reduction?

    <p>The standard reduction potential is positive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The half-reaction with a more negative standard reduction potential is the cathode.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between standard reduction potentials and oxidizing or reducing agents?

    <p>A large positive value indicates a good oxidizing agent and a large negative value indicates a good reducing agent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a galvanic cell, the half-reaction with the more positive reduction potential is the ______.

    <p>cathode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is calculated to find the overall cell potential for a galvanic cell?

    <p>$E_{cell} = E_{red} - E_{ox}$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The standard reduction potential is measured against a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a large negative standard reduction potential indicate about a substance?

    <p>It implies the substance is oxidized readily and is a good reducing agent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor speeds up the corrosion reaction of iron in water?

    <p>Presence of ionic salts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Galvanic corrosion occurs only when two metals are in direct contact with each other.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the standard electrode used in cell potential measurements?

    <p>Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When iron corrodes, it is oxidized while _____ from the air is reduced.

    <p>oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic does a voltmeter measure in a galvanic cell?

    <p>Cell potential and polarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for ion mobility between anodic and cathodic regions in a corrosion process?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Different half-reactions do not have characteristic cell potentials associated with them.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of electrolysis involves electrodes that are chemically inert?

    <p>Passive electrolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In electrolysis, the cathode always serves as the positive electrode.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about nuclei above Z = 83?

    <p>They are unstable and will decay to reach stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrons play a significant role in minimizing coulombic repulsion among protons in a nucleus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of electroplating?

    <p>To deposit a thin coat of metal for functional or cosmetic purposes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Hall-Heroult process is used for the electrolytic refining of aluminum from ________.

    <p>Al2O3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process occurs when an isotope below the band of stability emits beta particles?

    <p>Beta decay</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The energy released when a nucleus is formed from free nucleons is called __________.

    <p>binding energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced during the Hall-Heroult refining process besides aluminum metal?

    <p>Oxygen gas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following electrolysis types with their definitions:

    <p>Passive electrolysis = Electrodes are chemically inert. Active electrolysis = Electrodes participate in the reaction. Electroplating = Depositing a metal coat on another metal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of decay results when there are more protons than necessary in a nucleus?

    <p>Positron emission or electron capture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following decay processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Alpha decay = Emits alpha particles to reduce atomic number Beta decay = Converts a neutron to a proton Positron emission = Converts a proton to a neutron Electron capture = A proton captures an electron and becomes a neutron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ions are involved in the plating solution containing silver?

    <p>Ag+ and CN–</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stable isotope is produced at the end of the decay series starting with 238U?

    <p>206Pb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The flow of ions through the solution in electrolysis does not complete the circuit.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All nuclei experience alpha decay as a way to become more stable.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the binding energy (Eb) of helium-4 in joules?

    <p>4.5335 × 10^-12 J</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Helium-4 has a mass defect of 0.030377 u.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the magic numbers that indicate special stability in isotopes?

    <p>2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, 184</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei is called ________.

    <p>fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nuclear reactions with examples:

    <p>Transmutation = 10B reacting via neutron capture Fission = Uranium-235 splitting Fusion = Hydrogen nuclei combining Decay = Radioactive material emitting particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element has its binding energy per nucleon plotted to peak at?

    <p>Iron (56Fe)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most stable nuclei have odd numbers of both protons and neutrons.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is created during the fission of a heavy nucleus, such as uranium-235?

    <p>Lighter nuclei and neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the primary components in the anode reaction of nickel-metal-hydride batteries?

    <p>Nickel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fuel cells continuously supply reactants and remove products throughout their operation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced as a result of the reaction in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a lead-acid battery, the cathode consists of ________.

    <p>lead oxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of zinc-air batteries?

    <p>High energy density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Corrosion has little to no impact on battery performance.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anode reaction in a lead-acid battery produces PbSO4 and ________ ions.

    <p>H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary charge rate mentioned for the electrolytic bath used in the copper plating process?

    <p>0.15 V</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lithium-ion batteries are heavier than traditional batteries used in most aircraft.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the electrolysis process for gold plating, what is the duration given for the operation?

    <p>15.0 minutes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In order to deposit gold, the electrolysis cell uses ions of ________.

    <p>Au+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much energy cost is incurred when running an electrolytic process at 0.15 V and 15.0 A for 2 hours if charged at $0.0500 per kWh?

    <p>$0.30</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anode of a lithium-ion battery is composed of ________.

    <p>graphite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of a lithium-ion battery with their roles:

    <p>Anode = Graphite containing lithium Cathode = Cobalt oxide with lithium Electrolyte = Conducts lithium ions between anode and cathode Lithium ions = Carrier of charge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mass of tin must be deposited to achieve adequate coating according to the provided content?

    <p>3.60 g</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What particles are produced when a positron and an electron collide?

    <p>Two 511-keV gamma-ray photons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The activity of a radioactive sample is directly related to the number of nuclei present in the sample.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the decay constant for carbon-14 if its half-life is 5730 years?

    <p>0.0001217 years^-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ is the time required for half of a radioactive sample to disintegrate.

    <p>half-life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the SI unit of nuclear activity?

    <p>Becquerel (Bq)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following decay particles with their respective properties:

    <p>Positron = Positive charge Electron = Negative charge Neutron = Neutral charge Alpha particle = Contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Radioactive decay consistently follows zero-order kinetics.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the activity of a radioactive sample over time?

    <p>It decreases exponentially.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Nernst equation used to calculate in electrochemical cells?

    <p>The cell potential under nonstandard conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A galvanic cell has a positive cell potential and produces a positive Gibbs free energy change.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Faraday constant value?

    <p>96,485 C mol^-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formula for calculating Gibbs free energy change is ΔG = -nFE, where E is the __________.

    <p>cell potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the described galvanic cell with Cu and Ag, what would happen to the silver ions as the reaction proceeds?

    <p>They would be reduced to solid silver.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following electrochemical reactions with their standard free energy change implications:

    <p>Positive E = Spontaneous process Negative E = Non-spontaneous process E = 0 = Equilibrium state Cell potential &lt; 0 = Reaction favors reactants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reaction quotient (Q) in electrochemistry?

    <p>The ratio of the concentrations of products to reactants at a given moment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The equation relating cell potential to the equilibrium constant can be expressed as E = (RT/nF) ln K.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cathode becomes the positive electrode during reduction in electrolysis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process is used for the refining of aluminum from its oxide?

    <p>Hall-Heroult process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electroplating involves depositing a thin coat of ________ on another metal using electrolysis.

    <p>metal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of electrolysis with their characteristics:

    <p>Passive electrolysis = Electrodes are inert Active electrolysis = Electrodes participate in the reaction Electroplating = Depositing metal onto a surface Refining Aluminum = Extracts aluminum from its oxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In electrolysis, what drives a redox reaction that would otherwise not occur spontaneously?

    <p>External source of current</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In electrolysis, the anode becomes the negative electrode.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ions are formed during the electroplating of silver?

    <p>Ag+ and CN–</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method used for controlling high-energy plasma created in fusion reactions?

    <p>Magnetic confinement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionizing radiation includes visible light, radio waves, and microwaves.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does alpha radiation have on internal organs when produced inside the body?

    <p>much greater damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The penetrating power of a particle refers to how far it penetrates into a material before its energy is ______.

    <p>absorbed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of radiation with its classification:

    <p>Alpha particles = Ionizing radiation Visible light = Nonionizing radiation X-rays = Ionizing radiation Microwaves = Nonionizing radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause cell death through free radical formation?

    <p>Ionizing radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Alpha particles can penetrate deeply into matter due to their large size and charge.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two promising means to solve the confinement problem in fusion reactions?

    <p>Magnetic confinement and inertial confinement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of battery is primarily designed for single-use and cannot be recharged?

    <p>Primary battery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An alkaline battery operates with zinc as the cathode.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a battery?

    <p>To generate electrical current from a chemical reaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In lithium batteries, lithium serves as the __________.

    <p>anode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the equilibrium constant as cell potential increases?

    <p>It increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following primary cells with their characteristics:

    <p>Alkaline Battery = Uses zinc as the anode Lithium Battery = Long-lasting for medical devices Zinc-Air Battery = Oxygen reacts at the cathode Lead-Acid Battery = Reversible chemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc-air batteries are rechargeable.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical composition of the electrolyte in an alkaline battery?

    <p>KOH (potassium hydroxide)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a nickel-metal-hydride battery, which reactant is involved in the anode reaction?

    <p>Hydrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary product of a fuel cell reaction that combines hydrogen and oxygen is carbon dioxide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major limitation affects battery performance?

    <p>Corrosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a lead-acid battery, lead oxide is present at the ______.

    <p>cathode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of batteries with their characteristics:

    <p>Zinc-air battery = Uses oxygen from air Lead-acid battery = Used in cars Nickel-metal-hydride battery = Rechargeable cell Fuel cell = Continuous supply of reactants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reaction represents the cathode reaction in a fuel cell?

    <p>O2 + 4H + 4e → 2H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zinc-air batteries utilize zinc as one of their reactants.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to oxygen in a fuel cell?

    <p>It is reduced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which particle is negatively charged and emitted from the nucleus during beta decay?

    <p>Beta particle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of alpha decay in terms of atomic and mass numbers?

    <p>Atomic number decreases by 2, mass number decreases by 4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gamma rays are high-energy photons that are _______ by magnetic fields.

    <p>undeflected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of radiation with its charge and behavior in a magnetic field:

    <p>Alpha particles = Positively charged and deflected Beta particles = Negatively charged and deflected Gamma rays = No charge and undeflected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes a product of alpha decay?

    <p>Alpha particle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A neutron decays into a proton, a beta particle, and an antineutrino during beta decay.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify the reactant and product nuclei in the alpha decay of Uranium-238.

    <p>Reactant: Uranium-238 (238/92 U), Product: Thorium-234 (234/90 Th)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the maximum age limit for objects that can be carbon dated?

    <p>60,000 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The 14C/12C ratio remains constant in dead plants and animals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method is used to calibrate carbon dating?

    <p>Dendrochronology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The chart of the nuclides plots the number of protons against the number of ______.

    <p>neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of measuring the 14C/12C ratio in an artifact?

    <p>To estimate its age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nuclides located in the sea of instability are stable.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the confidence range for age determination using carbon dating?

    <p>±40 to 100 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced when a positron and an electron collide?

    <p>Two 511-keV gamma-ray photons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The activity of a radioactive sample always increases over time.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The half-life of carbon-14 is __________ years.

    <p>5730</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the relationship between half-life and decay constant?

    <p>They are inversely proportional.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Radioactive decay follows zero-order kinetics.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the number of radioactive nuclei as they decay?

    <p>It decreases exponentially.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when a nucleus has more protons than necessary?

    <p>It undergoes positron emission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All nuclei with atomic number above 83 are stable.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from a collection of free _____ .

    <p>nucleons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of emissions with their effects:

    <p>Beta decay = Converts a neutron to a proton Positron emission = Converts a proton to a neutron Alpha decay = Reduces both proton and neutron numbers Electron capture = Converts a proton to a neutron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to heavier nuclei during decay?

    <p>They emit alpha and beta particles until reaching stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta particles have higher penetrating power than alpha particles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the stable product of the decay series starting with 238U?

    <p>206Pb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of gamma decay?

    <p>It emits high-energy photons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electron capture increases the nuclear charge of the nucleus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What particle is emitted during positron decay?

    <p>positron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During gamma decay, a nucleus returns to its ground state by emitting a _________.

    <p>gamma ray</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of decay with their descriptions:

    <p>Alpha decay = Emits helium nuclei Beta decay = Converts a neutron to a proton or vice versa Gamma decay = Emits high-energy photons Electron capture = Converts a proton to a neutron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding beta decay?

    <p>It converts a neutron into a proton.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gamma decay affects the mass number of the nucleus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of particle is represented by the symbol 0 -1 β?

    <p>beta particle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a positive standard reduction potential indicate about a half-reaction?

    <p>The half-reaction proceeds as written, reduction occurs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A half-reaction with a lower reduction potential is considered a good oxidizing agent.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do you calculate to find the overall cell potential E°cell for a galvanic cell?

    <p>E°cell = E°red - E°ox</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the half-reactions with their roles in a galvanic cell:

    <p>Reduction half-reaction = Cathode Oxidation half-reaction = Anode Positive standard reduction potential = Reduction occurs Negative standard reduction potential = Oxidation occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true regarding the arrangement of standard reduction potentials?

    <p>The highest potential signifies the cathode.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A negative cell potential means reduction occurs at the anode.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify which half-reaction occurs at the anode in a galvanic cell.

    <p>Oxidation half-reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the minimum amount of fissile material required to sustain a chain reaction?

    <p>Critical mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fission reactions occur only through spontaneous processes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary products of the fission reaction of uranium-235?

    <p>Barium-141 and krypton-92</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During fission, a large nucleus splits into two smaller parts and also emits __________.

    <p>neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following fission-related terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Fissionable = Capable of undergoing fission Induced fission = Fission triggered by neutron bombardment Spontaneous fission = Fission that occurs without external influence Chain reaction = Continuous series of fission reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to neutrons produced during a fission reaction?

    <p>They can initiate further fission reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fission reactions only occur in uranium isotopes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do enriched uranium and neutrons play in the process of fission?

    <p>Enriched uranium undergoes fission when bombarded by neutrons, producing additional neutrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of radiation is known for having the highest penetrating power?

    <p>Gamma particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta particles can pass several centimeters into the body and are often less dangerous than alpha particles.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What device is commonly used to detect radioactivity using a gas-filled tube?

    <p>Geiger counter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of producing large numbers of ions from a single ionizing particle is known as the __________ effect.

    <p>single event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of radiation with their characteristics:

    <p>Alpha particles = High mass and low penetrating power Beta particles = Lower mass and can penetrate several centimeters Gamma particles = Highly penetrating energy without mass Neutrons = Neutral particles with high penetrating power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the main reasons electronics in satellites are packaged in hardened materials?

    <p>To safeguard against cosmic rays</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Alpha particles can fully penetrate soft tissue and cause significant damage to vital organs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method uses a fluorescent screen to detect radioactivity by converting radiation into a detectable signal?

    <p>Scintillation counter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a film-badge dosimeter?

    <p>To monitor radiation exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Background radiation must be added to measurements of radioactive sources.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the quality factor (Q) used for in radiation measurement?

    <p>To calculate the equivalent dose and assess relative biological effectiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a Geiger-Mueller tube, radiation produces ______ in the gas.

    <p>ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following medical imaging methods with their primary function:

    <p>Radioisotope imaging = Examining organ function X-ray = Producing images based on radiation absorption PET = Visualizing metabolic processes CT scan = Creating cross-sectional images of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of radiation is most effective at penetrating human tissue?

    <p>Gamma rays</p> Signup and view all the answers

    X-ray radiation is absorbed equally by all types of tissues in the body.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What substance does the thyroid gland use to produce thyroid hormone?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between ionizing and nonionizing radiation?

    <p>Ionizing radiation has a higher energy than typical ionization energies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does ionizing radiation have on living tissue?

    <p>It can cause significant damage through free radical formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process by which radiation causes electrons to be ejected from atoms is called ________.

    <p>ionization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of radiation with its characteristic feature:

    <p>Alpha particles = Greater ionizing power but low penetrating power Beta particles = Moderate ionizing and penetrating power X-rays = High penetrating power but lower ionizing power than alpha Gamma rays = Highest penetrating power among radiations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is used for confining the high-energy plasma in fusion reactions?

    <p>Magnetic confinement using magnetic fields</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nonionizing radiation includes microwaves and radio waves.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The energy needed to initiate a fusion reaction typically exceeds the energy released, leading to a ________ situation.

    <p>net negative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Chapter Objectives

    • Describe cosmic rays and how they affect Earth and its atmosphere
    • Write, balance, and interpret equations for simple nuclear reactions
    • Define and differentiate various modes of nuclear decay (alpha decay, beta decay, positron emission, electron capture)
    • Interpret the kinetics of radioactive decay using first-order rate equations
    • Use the chart of the nuclides to understand radioactive decay processes and how they affect nuclear stability
    • Use Einstein's equation to calculate binding energies of nuclei and the energy changes of nuclear reactions
    • Describe nuclear fission and fusion, and explain how both processes can be highly exothermic
    • Discuss the potential of fission and fusion as energy sources and explain the pros and cons of each
    • Explain how penetrating power and ionizing power combine to determine the effects of radiation on materials, including living tissue
    • Describe how radioisotopes can be used in medical imaging techniques to monitor organ function

    Corrosion

    • Corrosion is the chemical degradation of metals by reactions with the environment
    • Uniform corrosion occurs evenly over a large area of a metal
    • Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals touch in the presence of an appropriate electrolyte
    • Crevice corrosion occurs when two pieces of metal touch, leaving a small gap, accelerating the corrosion process

    Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Galvanic Cells

    • Special conditions are needed for iron to react with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide
    • Rust formation is a slow process, so the basic principles of electrochemistry must be investigated with reactions that are easier to observe
    • Reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are redox reactions
    • Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a chemical species
    • Reduction is the gain of electrons to a chemical species

    Oxidation-Reduction and Half-Reactions

    • For an oxidation-reduction reaction, one reactant must be oxidized and one reactant must be reduced
    • Oxidation cannot occur without reduction
    • Copper placed in a silver nitrate solution undergoes a redox reaction
    • The solution changes color, and crystals form on the copper wire
    • The solution's blue color indicates Cu²⁺ ions in the solution
    • Cu²⁺ is formed when a copper atom loses two electrons
    • Copper metal is oxidized
    • Silver is formed when a silver ion gains an electron
    • The silver cation is reduced
    • Half-reactions are written for the oxidation of copper and the reduction of silver
    • Neither half-reaction can occur without the other
    • The electron transfer must be balanced, so the reduction half-reaction is multiplied by 2

    Building a Galvanic Cell

    • A galvanic cell uses a spontaneous chemical reaction to generate an electric current
    • To harness electricity from a galvanic cell, each half-reaction is prepared in half-cells
    • Cu metal immersed in Cu²⁺ solution is one half-cell
    • Ag metal immersed in Ag⁺ solution is the second half-cell
    • A salt bridge is required to allow ions to flow between the half-cells, completing the circuit

    Terminology for Galvanic Cells

    • Electrodes are the electrically conducting sites where oxidation or reduction occurs
    • The electrode with oxidation is the anode. The electrode with reduction is the cathode
    • Cell notation is a shorthand for the specific chemistry of an electrochemical cell
    • The anode is written on the left, and the cathode on the right
    • A vertical line in cell notation denotes a phase boundary
    • A double vertical line denotes a salt bridge

    Standard Reduction Potentials

    • To compare oxidation-reduction trends, all half-cell potentials are written as reductions
    • A table of standard reduction potentials lists the potential of any half-reaction when connected to a SHE
    • All materials in the table listed must be 1 M in aqueous solutions and 1 atm in partial pressure for gases
    • When the half-reactions are listed as reductions, one half-reaction must be an oxidation and must be reversed
    • The cell potential sign must be changed when writing a half-reaction as an oxidation
    • Potentials are measured with a SHE connected to the positive terminal
    • The half-reaction with the more positive reduction potential will be the cathode
    • The half-reaction with the more negative reduction potential will be the anode

    Nonstandard Conditions

    • The cell potential under nonstandard conditions is calculated using the Nernst equation

    Cell Potentials and Free Energy

    • Corrosion is a spontaneous process
    • The Gibbs free energy change for an electrochemical reaction can be calculated from the standard reduction potential
    • The minus sign is required in the equation because a galvanic cell has a positive cell potential, spontaneously generates electrical work, and thus must have a negative ΔG value

    Equilibrium Constants

    • The cell potential can be used to calculate the equilibrium constant for an electrochemical reaction
    • The relationship between the cell potential and the equilibrium constant can be rewritten using a common logarithm
    • The equation can be simplified for reactions carried out at 25°C (298 K)

    Batteries

    • A battery is a cell or series of cells that generate an electrical current
    • Batteries harness the electrical work of a galvanic cell

    Primary Cells

    • Single-use batteries that cannot be recharged are primary cells
    • The most prevalent type of primary cell is the alkaline battery
    • Alkaline battery has a zinc electrode at which oxidation occurs: Zn(s) + 2OH⁻(aq) → Zn(OH)₂(s) + 2e⁻
    • The cathode is derived from manganese(IV) oxide: 2MnO₂(s) + H₂O(l) + 2e⁻ → Mn₂O₃(s) + 2OH⁻(aq)
    • Lithium batteries are small and long lasting, and used in medical devices like pacemakers
    • Lithium is the anode, Li(s) → Li⁺ + e⁻
    • Manganese(IV) oxide is the cathode, MnO₂(s) + Li⁺ + e⁻ → LiMnO₂(s)
    • Zinc-air batteries are also primary cells, where zinc is the anode and oxygen reacts at the cathode: Zn(s) + 2OH⁻(aq) → Zn(OH)₂(s) + 2e⁻ and O₂ (g) + H₂O(l) + 4e⁻ → 2OH⁻(aq).

    Secondary Cells

    • Rechargeable batteries
    • Nickel-metal-hydride batteries are an example of secondary cells
    • The anode reaction is MH(s) + OH⁻(aq) → M⁺ + H₂O(l) + e⁻.
    • The complex cathode reaction can be represented as NiO(OH)(s) + H₂O(l) + e⁻ → Ni(OH)₂(s) + OH⁻(aq)
    • Lead-acid storage batteries are secondary cells

    Fuel Cells

    • A fuel cell is a voltaic cell that continuously supplies reactants and removes products of the cell reaction
    • Most common type uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce water

    Limitations of Batteries

    • Corrosion is a major cause for the loss of performance in batteries
    • Protective plating is an attempt to limit corrosion on batteries

    Electrolysis

    • Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to drive a nonspontaneous chemical reaction
    • Electrolytic cells can be passive (inert electrodes) or active (electrodes are part of the electrolytic reaction)

    Electrolysis and Polarity

    • Electrolysis changes the polarity of the electrodes
    • For reduction, electrons are forced to the cathode(negative electrode)
    • For oxidation, electrons are pulled from the anode(positive electrode)

    Passive Electrolysis in Refining Aluminum

    • Electrolysis overcomes the nonspontaneous reaction to separate aluminum from its oxide.
    • The Hall-Heroult refining process uses inert carbon electrodes

    Active Electrolysis and Electroplating

    • The process of depositing metal by using electrolysis is electroplating
    • Silver is plated onto electrical devices because silver is a good conductor and resistant to corrosion
    • The solution used contains CN⁻(aq) ions, which form a complex with Ag⁺. This makes the uniform coatings an important step
    • The object being electroplated is the cathode

    Electrolysis and Stoichiometry

    • Use controlled amounts of materials in electroplating
    • Controlling the flow of electrons(current) in an electroplating operation provides a method to accurately limit the amount of material deposited
    • Electroplating is used to prevent galvanic corrosion

    Current and Charge

    • When current is measured in an electric circuit, the observation is the flow of charge for a period of time
    • The unit of current, the ampere (A) is defined as one coulomb per second (1 A = 1 Cs⁻¹)
    • If a known current flows through a circuit for a known time, the charge can be easily calculated (Charge = current × time)
    • Using Faraday's constant (F = 96,485 C mol⁻¹) and the calculated charge, the number of moles of electrons can be calculated
    • If the number of electrons required to reduce each metal cation is known, the number of moles of plated material can be calculated

    Example Problems

    • Problems involving different topics related to electrolysis, calculations, and applications will be included

    Nuclear Chemistry

    • Section that will cover topics like cosmic rays, radioactive decay, nuclear stability, energetics of nuclear reactions, fission, fusion, and modern medical applications

    Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

    • Cosmic rays are subatomic particles traveling at high speeds that bombard Earth, mostly atomic nuclei (87% hydrogen, 12% helium, rest heavier nuclei)
    • Cosmic rays originate from solar flares
    • The energies of cosmic rays are much higher compared to chemical energies.
    • Formation of radioactive 14C via interactions with gas molecules in the atmosphere
    • Terrestrial carbon has 98.9% 12C and 1.11% 13C (both stable)
    • 14C is unstable and undergoes radioactive decay
    • Nuclear reactions are written in format similar to chemical reactions, reactants and products are particles/atoms (not molecules)
    • Nuclide symbols (e.g., 146C)represent the composition of a nuclide (mass number/atomic number)

    Radioactive Decay

    • Types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) and their properties
    • Alpha decay: a parent nucleus emits an alpha particle (a helium nucleus, ⁴He₂), decreasing the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2
    • Beta decay: a neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton, a beta particle (electron, ⁰β⁻₁), and an antineutrino, increasing the atomic number by 1
    • Gamma decay: the nucleus emits a gamma ray (high-energy photon, 𝛾), which is unaffected by magnetic fields

    Electron Capture and Positron Emission

    • Electron capture: the nucleus captures an electron, converting a proton to a neutron, decreasing the nuclear charge by one (reverse of beta emission)
    • Positron emission: a proton in the nucleus decays into a neutron, positron (b⁺, positive electron), and a neutrino
    • Matter-antimatter annihilation occurs when a positron encounters an electron, producing two gamma rays

    Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

    • Activity of a sample of nuclei is the rate of disintegration (ΔN/Δt)
    • SI unit for nuclear activity is the becquerel (Bq)
    • The curie (Ci) is an older unit defined as the number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of radium-226 (1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ Bq)
    • Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics
    • Half-life (t₁/₂): the time required for half of the sample to disintegrate

    Radiocarbon Dating

    • 14C is formed continuously from cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere
    • 14C is incorporated into living plants and animals
    • The 14C/12C ratio remains constant over time in living organisms
    • When an organism dies, 14C incorporation stops and its activity decreases
    • Artifact age is determined by measuring the 14C/12C ratio in the artifact relative to the ratio in today's atmosphere and applying first-order kinetics equations in decay

    Nuclear Stability

    • Chart of the Nuclides: a plot of atomic number versus neutron number for all known stable nuclei
    • Stable nuclides are clustered in a region called the band of stability, generally with even numbers of protons and neutrons
    • Nuclides outside the band of stability (sea of instability) tend to decay

    Nuclear Stability

    • The band of stability ends at Z = 83
    • Beyond Z = 83, all nuclei are unstable and decay to reach a stable nucleus
    • Heavier nuclei decay through a series of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is formed
    • Alpha decay lowers the proton and neutron numbers of a nucleus quickly
    • A decay series is a sequence of radioactive decays a nucleus undergoes to reach a stable isotopes

    Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

    • Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its nucleons
    • Binding energy is also the energy required to take apart a nucleus: the greater the value, the more stable the nucleus
    • Mass defect (Δm) = difference between calculated mass and measured mass; helps calculate binding energy by using the equation E=mc²

    Binding Energy

    • Helium-4 atom: composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, mass defect and binding energy

    Magic Numbers and Nuclear Shells

    • Many stable nuclei have an even number of both protons and neutrons
    • Isotopes with atomic numbers (Z) or neutron numbers (N) of 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, or 184 exhibit special stability (magic numbers)
    • Nuclei with both Z and N as magic numbers (doubly magic) show enhanced stability

    Transmutation, Fission, and Fusion

    • Three categories of nuclear reactions: transmutation (one nucleus changes to another), fission (heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei), fusion (light nuclei merge into a heavier nucleus)
    • Transmutation: examples that include neutron capture producing an unstable intermediate/compound nucleus (which decays almost instantly)
    • Fission: induced by neutron bombardment, a large fissile nucleus absorbs a neutron, becomes a compound nucleus that splits into smaller parts, emitting more neutrons (chain reaction)

    Fission

    • Fissile nuclei: those that readily undergo fission
    • Some fission reactions are spontaneous, others are initiated by neutron bombardment
    • Chain reaction in fission: produced neutrons are used to instigate further fission if enough fissile material remains
    • Critical mass: amount of material to sustain a chain reaction
    • Controlled fission can generate electricity

    Nuclear Reactors

    • Fissionable material: for commercial reactors, 235U
    • Uranium enrichment: increasing the proportion of 235U in natural uranium. This is essential for efficient chain reactions
    • Uranium oxide fuel is embedded into fuel rods and placed in a water-covered reactor core
    • The water in the reactor slows down the fast neutrons (moderates the reactor)

    Nuclear Waste

    • Several fission products are radioactive and concentrated in spent fuel rods, called high-level nuclear waste.
    • Spent fuel rods can be reprocessed into new fuel rods but is not common practice in the US.
    • High-level waste is stored on-site at the reactor

    Nuclear Waste Management

    • Yucca Mountain was considered for high-level nuclear waste storage because of its remote location, dry climate, deep water level which is considered a long-term solution

    Fusion

    • In the sun, four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus, releasing energy (step-wise process)
    • Deuterium (²H) and tritium (³H) are used for fusion reaction
    • Fusion produces more energy per nucleus than fission, as it needs to overcome the repulsion between positive charged nucleons. This can be achieved through using extremely high temperatures
    • Confinement methods like magnetic confinement or inertial confinement are necessary for controlling fusion reactions

    Interaction of Radiation and Matter

    • Factors influencing radiation effects on matter (amount of radiation, penetrating power, ionizing power)
    • Ionizing radiation (e.g. alpha, beta, gamma rays, X-rays) can cause significant damage to materials, including living tissue, due to free radical formation
    • Alpha particles have high ionizing power but low penetrating power
    • Beta particles have lower ionizing but somewhat higher penetrating power than alpha particles
    • Gamma rays and X-rays have high penetrating power and lower ionizing power.

    Modern Medical Imaging Methods

    • Radioisotopes help create images of specific organs using techniques like positron emission tomography (PET)
    • X-ray images are based on radiation absorption; materials with high density absorb X-rays more strongly
    • Radioisotopes are introduced into target organs based on their biochemistry (i.e iodine-131 is tracked to identify thyroid function)
    • Positron emission tomography (PET) produces high-quality medical images of specific body organs by tracking the emission of positrons. The short half-life of positrons leads them to produce high quality images, allowing detailed analysis

    Methods of Detecting Radiation

    • Methods, including zinc sulfide phosphor, scintillation counter, Geiger-Mueller tube, and film-badge dosimeter, are used to measure radiation

    Measuring Radiation Dose

    • Interplay of ionizing power and penetrating power results in a number of ways to express radiation dose
    • Quality factor (Q): used to calculate equivalent dose (relative biological effectiveness = RBE); varies from 1 for high-energy photons to about 20 for alpha particles

    Table 14.2

    • Definitions and units used to quantify exposure to radiation (Exposure, Absorbed Dose, Equivalent Dose)

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